Uwoyela—Siwuthola Kanjani?

“MAKUBE khona ukukhanya.” Ngekhulu le-19 e-United States, kwakudingeka omunye umthombo wokukhanya kokuzenzela owawuzothatha indawo yezibani ezifilizayo ezazikhanyisa ngamafutha ezilwane, amafutha omkhomo, nangezinye izinto. Laba yini ikhambi? Uwoyela! Wawungatholakalaphi?

Ngo-1859, u-Edwin L. Drake, umqondisi wezitimela owayesethathe umhlalaphansi, wemba umthombo ongamamitha angu-22 ukujula lapho kwatholakala khona uwoyela ongahluziwe ngokokuqala ngqá eduze kwaseTitusville, ePennsylvania, e-U.S.A., esebenzisa injini endala yamalahle. Lokho kwaphawula ukuqala kwenkathi kawoyela e-United States. Njengoba uwoyela wawutholakala ezingxenyeni eziningi zomhlaba, waba nethonya elikhulu kwezomnotho nakwezombusazwe. Waba umthombo ophambili wokukhanya kokuzenzela izwe elaliwulindele ngabomvu.

Ngokushesha, abantu baqala ukuthenga umhlaba ubuthaphuthaphu nokumba imithombo kulokho okuthiwa izindawo zikawoyela zase-United States. Kuleyo minyaka kwakuvamile ukuzwa ngabantu abavuka beyizinjinga kanye nabanye kamuva abalahlekelwa yiwo wonke umcebo wabo. Isimanga siwukuthi u-Edwin Drake, indoda eyamba umthombo wokuqala ePennsylvania, wayengomunye wabaseqenjini lakamuva.

Naphezu kokuchuma kwayo okukhulu, noma mhlawumbe kwakungenxa yako, imboni kawoyela yasePennsylvania yaqala ukuhlushwa ukwehla ngokushesha kwamanani. Uwoyela wehla usuka ku-$20 umphongolo waba amasenti ayishumi! Ukukhiqiza ngokweqile nokuqagela izimo kwenza ukuba amanani ehle, futhi eminye imithombo yasheshe yoma. Isikhumbuzo esikhethekile saleyo nkathi iPithole City, ePennsylvania, namuhla engahlalwa muntu. Yakhiwa, yachuma, yabuye yashiywa ikhala ibhungane—esikhathini esingaphezudlwana konyaka nesigamu. Lokho kushintshashintsha kwezimo kwakuzoba yingxenye ephawulekayo yomlando kawoyela.

Ngo-1870, uJohn D. Rockefeller nozakwabo abambalwa basungula iStandard Oil Company. Le nkampani yaphatha imboni kaphalafini kwaze kwaba yilapho kuvela izimbangi, ikakhulukazi embonini kawoyela yaseRussia. Enye imbangi kwakunguMarcus Samuel, umsunguli wenkampani namuhla eyaziwa ngokuthi iRoyal Dutch/Shell Group. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ngenxa yokuhlakanipha kwezelamani zakwaNobel,a kwavulwa ibhizinisi elikhulu likawoyela eRussia ngowoyela owawutholakala emithonjeni yaseBaku.

Leso kwakuyisiqalo somlando wochungechunge lwamabhizinisi kawoyela. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, kuye kwakhiwa imifelandawonye nezinhlangano ukuze kugwenywe ukuguquguquka kwentengo nezimo zokukhiqiza ezazikhona kudala. Enye yalezi zinhlangano i-Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), emalungu ayo angu-11 ehlangene anemithombo eminingi kawoyela ongahluziwe emhlabeni.—Bheka ibhokisi elisekhasini 7.

Ungakanani Uwoyela Okhona, Futhi Ukuphi?

Ekupheleni kwekhulu le-19, ukusetshenziswa kabanzi kukagesi kwakungase kuwawise amabhizinisi kawoyela. Nokho, omunye umkhiqizo omusha ovelele wasishintsha ngokuphelele leso simo—injini kaphethiloli, esetshenziswa ngokuyinhloko ezimotweni. Uphethiloli, owumkhiqizo kawoyela ongahluziwe, wawusudingeka ezimotweni ezinezinjini, kakade ezase zitholakala emazweni amaningi anezimboni ekupheleni kwawo-1920. Manje kwase kudingeka uwoyela omningi ukuze kugcinwe izimoto emgwaqweni, kodwa wawuzovelaphi?

Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, ukubaluleka kukawoyela embonini yembulunga yonke kuye kwandiswa ukutholakala okuqhubekayo kwemithombo emisha kawoyela ezingxenyeni ezihlukahlukene zomhlaba—imithombo engaba ngu-50 000! Kodwa uma kubhekwa izinga lokukhiqiza, isici esibalulekile akulona inani lemithombo ekhona, kodwa ubukhulu bayo. Mikhulu kangakanani?

Imithombo kawoyela equkethe okungenani imiphongolo kawoyela eyizigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezinhlanu iyona ebhekwa njengemikhulu kakhulu, kanti eyesibili emikhulu iqukethe imiphongolo esukela emakhulwini ayizigidi ezinhlanu kuya ezigidini eziyizinkulungwane ezinhlanu. Nakuba i-“U.S. Geological Survey World Petroleum Assessment 2000” ibala amazwe angaba ngu-70 njenganemithombo ethile kawoyela, ambalwa kuphela kuwo anemithombo kawoyela emikhulu. (Bheka ibhokisi elisekhasini 7.) Inani elikhulu lemithombo kawoyela emikhulu kunayo yonke litholakala esifundazweni sase-Arabiya nase-Iran, okuyindawo ehlanganisa isigodi sasePersian Gulf.

Ukufuna imithombo emisha kawoyela akukapheli. Kunalokho, sekusekelwa ngobuchwepheshe obuphambili. Njengamanje isifundazwe saseCaspian Sea, esakhiwa izwe lase-Azerbaijan, i-Iran, iKazakhstan, iRussia, iTurkmenistan, ne-Uzbekistan, sesidonse amehlo abakhiqizi bakawoyela. Ngokwe-U.S. Energy Information Administration, le ndawo isethubeni elihle kakhulu lokukhiqiza uwoyela negesi yemvelo. Kuhlolwa eminye imizila yokuthutha, njengokunqamula e-Afghanistan. Kuye kwatholakala nezinye izindawo ezingawukhiqiza eMpumalanga Ephakathi, eGreenland nasezingxenyeni ezithile ze-Afrika. Ukuguqulwa kwama-hydrocarbon atholakele abe uwoyela nezinye izinto ezisetshenziswa ekuphileni kwansuku zonke kungenye indaba.

Uwoyela Ukhishwa Kanjani?

Izazi zokuma komhlaba nabahloli bomhlaba bafuna izindawo okungenzeka ukuthi zinowoyela ngaphansi komhlaba. Ngemva kokwenza izilinganiso ezithile nokuthatha amasampula, bayamba ukuze baqinisekise ukuthi ngempela ukhona uwoyela. Esikhathini esidlule, ukumba ngokuqondile emthonjeni kawoyela kwakungase kusho ukuthelwa udaka nowoyela otshazayo, okwakuhambisana nokulahlekelwa umthamo wokuqala kawoyela nengozi yokuqhuma. Nokho, ngemishini yokulinganisa namavalufu akhethekile, imishini yanamuhla yokumba iyakuvimbela ukuba kungenzeki lokhu. Namuhla zikhona nezindlela zokumba ngemishini yokubhola emincane ekwazi ukungena ijule emhlabeni.

Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, umfutho okhipha uwoyela negesi uyancipha, futhi kufanele ulondolozwe ngokumpompa amanzi, amakhemikhali, isikhutha, noma amanye amagesi, njenge-nitrogen. Kuye ngendawo, uwoyela ungajiya ngamazinga ahlukene. Ngokuvamile, kuthandwa kakhulu uwoyela olula, ngoba kulula ukuwukhipha nokuwuhluza.

Njengoba i-American Petroleum Institute yachaza, ubuchwepheshe besimanje buhlanganisa nokumba ushone emaceleni, okunciphisa isibalo semithombo okufanele ibholwe. Ukumba ngasogwini lolwandle, okwaqala ngo-1947 eGulf of Mexico, kwawandisa kakhulu umkhiqizo kawoyela. Nokho-ke, inqubo yokuwukhipha esetshenziswayo inethonya eliqondile entengweni yomkhiqizo okhishwayo.b

Uthuthwa Kanjani Uwoyela?

Ngo-1863 ePennsylvania, kwakhiwa amapayipi okhuni amancane okuthutha uwoyela, ngenxa yokuthi ayeshibhile futhi kulula ukuwasebenzisa kunemiphongolo engamalitha angu-159 eyayithuthwa ngamakalishi amahhashi.c Amapayipi anamuhla okuthutha uwoyela aseyinkimbinkimbi futhi maningi. Ngokwe-Association of Oil Pipe Lines, elase-United States lilodwa linoxhaxha lwamapayipi okuthutha uwoyela ongahluziwe olungamakhilomitha angu-300 000!

Lezi zimiso zanamuhla zamapayipi okuthutha uwoyela, ezenziwe ngokuyinhloko ngensimbi, azithuthi kuphela uwoyela ongahluziwe oya ezimbonini zokuwuhluza kodwa nemikhiqizo kawoyela esihluziwe eya kubadayisi. Ubuchwepheshe obusetshenziswa kula mapayipi namuhla bunezimiso ezinemishini elawula ukugeleza kukawoyela nomfutho wawo. Kuye kwaklanywa imishini emincane nehlakaniphile esetshenziselwa ukuhlola amapayipi angamakhulukhulu amakhilomitha, kwasungulwa isimiso se-Magnetic Flux Leakage kanye nesimiso sokuhlola amapayipi ngokuthungatha umsindo. Nokho, okuwukuphela kwento umthengi wemikhiqizo ayibonayo cishe uphawu olubonisa ukuthi kunepayipi likawoyela elihamba ngaphansi komhlaba nesixwayiso esithi akufanele kumbiwe kuleyo ndawo.

Nokho, yize siwusizo, isimiso samapayipi kawoyela asilona ikhambi elisebenzisekayo lokuthutha uwoyela omningi uyiswe phesheya kwezilwandle. Kodwa abadayisi bakawoyela bakuqala balithola nekhambi laleyo nkinga—imikhumbi kawoyela emikhulu. Lena yimikhumbi eklanywe ngokukhethekile enobude obungaba amamitha angu-400. Le mikhumbi mikhulu kunayo yonke ehamba olwandle futhi iyakwazi ukuthwala imiphongolo kawoyela engaba yisigidi noma ngaphezulu. Ngeshwa, nakuba ibonakala iqinile, imikhumbi kawoyela inobuthakathaka obungakanqotshwa kuze kube manje, njengoba kubonisa ibhokisi elithi “Ukuchitheka Kukawoyela.” Izikebhe nezinqola zesitimela nazo ziyizindlela ezivamile zokuthutha uwoyela ngobuningi. Noma kunjalo, lapho kuthuthwa uwoyela, indlela othuthwa ngayo imane nje iyingxenye yenqubo.

Ilangabi elincane eliphuma kushimula omude—osebenza njengevalufu yokunciphisa umfutho—liyisibonakaliso esihle sokuthi leyo ndawo oyibonayo iyimboni yokuhluza uwoyela. Ngokuyisisekelo, kulezi zikhungo ezinkulu zokuhluza uwoyela, uwoyela ongahluziwe uyabaselwa bese uthunyelwa embhoshongweni wokucwenga onomoya onomfutho, lapho uhlukaniswa khona ube yizingxenye ezihlukahlukene. Lezi zingxenye zisukela kwezilula—amagesi, njenge-butane—kuya kwezijiyile, ezihluzwayo kwenziwe izinto zokugcoba, phakathi kweminye imikhiqizo. (Bheka amakhasi 8-9.) Kodwa lokhu kusashiya umbuzo, Ingabe uwoyela uyisibusiso ngesikhathi esifanayo uphinde ube yisiqalekiso?

[Imibhalo yaphansi]

[Ibhokisi/Isithombe ekhasini 5]

IMIPHONGOLO NOMA AMATHANI?

Izinkampani zokuqala zikawoyela ePennsylvania zazithutha uwoyela ngemiphongolo yewayini engamalitha angu-180. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi le miphongolo yayithelwa uwoyela ongamalitha angu-159 kuphela ukuze ibe nesikhala ingachitheki lapho ithuthwa. Nanamuhla kusasetshenziswa umphongolo (ongamalitha angu-159) embonini kawoyela.

Kusukela ekuqaleni, uwoyela waseYurophu wawuthuthwa ngemikhumbi futhi wawuvame ukulinganiswa ngesisindo, ngamathani, njengoba kunjalo nanamuhla.

[Umthombo]

Source: American Petroleum Institute

[Ibhokisi ekhasini 6]

UWOYELA ONGAHLUZIWE WAKHEKA KANJANI?

Umbono obulokhu wandile kososayensi kusukela ngawo-1870 ubizwa ngokuthi i-biogenic theory. Lo mbono “uthi imfucumfucu yezinto eziphilayo engaphansi komhlaba iyabola ibe uwoyela negesi yemvelo ngemva kwesikhathi eside bese lo woyela ongahluziwe ugcwala emifantwini yamadwala ezingqimbeni [zoMhlaba] ezingaphezulu.” Ngale ndlela kube sekuvela uwoyela ongahluziwe, owakhiwa ngokuyinhloko ama-hydrocarbon—okuwukuthi, i-hydrogen ne-carbon. Nokho, kusukela ngawo-1970 abanye ososayensi bebelokhu bewungabaza lo mbono ngezinye izikhathi.

Kuyi-Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences ka-August 20, 2002, kwanyatheliswa isihloko esithi “Umsuka Wama-hydrocarbon Nokawoyela Ongahluziwe.” Abalobi bale ncwadi bathi uwoyela ongahluziwe wemvelo kumelwe ukuba wakheka “ekujuleni koMhlaba ngaphansi kongqimba oluphezulu” hhayi endaweni engajulile njengokwenkolelo yeningi.

Uprofesa we-physics uThomas Gold uye waveza imibono ethile ephikisayo futhi uchaza izizathu zakhe ngokuningiliziwe encwadini yakhe ethi The Deep Hot Biosphere—The Myth of Fossil Fuels. Uyabhala: “Umbono wokuthi ama-hydrocarbon avela ezintweni eziphilayo wawande kakhulu e-United States nasengxenyeni enkulu yeYurophu kangangokuba wathiya ukucwaningwa kweminye imibono ephambene nawo. Kwakungenjalo emazweni ayengaphansi kweSoviet Union.” Lokhu “cishe kwakungenxa yokuthi isazi sokuthakwa kwemithi saseRussia esasihlonishwa uMendeleyev sasisekele umbono othi uwoyela awuveli ezintweni eziphilayo ezingaphansi komhlaba. Izizathu esaziveza zinamandla ngisho nakakhulu namuhla, ngenxa yokwaziswa okukhulu esesinakho manje.” Wawuthini umbono waso?

UGold uthi: “Umbono wokuthi uwoyela awuveli ezintweni eziphilayo ezingaphansi komhlaba uthi ama-hydrocarbon ayeyingxenye yezakhi zomhlaba, ngenxa yokunqwabelana kwezinto eziqinile, eminyakeni engaba yizigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezingu-4,5 edlule.” Ngokwalo mbono, izakhi zikawoyela ongahluziwe bezilokhu zisekujuleni komhlaba kusukela ekwakhekeni komhlaba.d

[Umbhalo waphansi]

[Ibhokisi/Isithombe ekhasini 10, 11]

UKUCHITHEKA KUKAWOYELA

◼ Ingqikithi yomthamo kawoyela oye wachitheka emikhunjini phakathi kuka-1970 no-2000 ungamathani angu-5 322 000

◼ Umthamo omkhulu kunayo yonke kawoyela owachitheka wawungo-1979 lapho umkhumbi i-Atlantic Empress ushayisana ne-Aegean Captain eCaribbean, okwaphumela ekuchithekeni kwamathani kawoyela angu-287 000

◼ I-Exxon Valdez yayiwumkhumbi kawoyela wama-34 ngobukhulu owachitha uwoyela

◼ Nakuba kuba khona uwoyela ochithekayo emkhunjini lapho ulayishwa, ukhishwa, noma uhlelwa emkhunjini, ukuchitheka okukhulu kukawoyela kwenzeka lapho kungqubuzana imikhumbi nalapho ibhajwa

◼ Okunye ukuchitheka okukhulu kukawoyela okungabangelwanga yimikhumbi:

● Ukuqhuma komthombo owawuhlolwa i-Ixtoc I ngo-1979, eGulf of Mexico. Ingqikithi kawoyela owachitheka: amalitha angu-500 000 000

● Ukuqhuma kwesisekelo somthombo ePersian Gulf ngo-1983. Ingqikithi kawoyela owachitheka: amalitha angu-300 000 000

● Ukudedelwa kukawoyela ngamabomu ngo-1991, ePersian Gulf. Ingqikithi kawoyela owachitheka: amalitha angu-900 000 000

[Isithombe]

Umkhumbi kawoyela i-“Erika” ucwila eduze kwasePenmarch Point, eFrance, ngo-December 13, 1999

[Imithombo]

Sources: International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited, “Oil Spill Intelligence Report,” “The Encarta Encyclopedia”

© La Marine Nationale, France

[Umdwebo/Izithombe ekhasini 8, 9]

(Ukuze ubone ukuthi indaba ihlelwe kanjani, bheka encwadini)

UKUKHIQIZWA KUKAWOYELA—KWENZIWE KWABA LULA

1—UKUHLOLA

ISIPHUPHUTHEKI

I-Global Positioning System inikeza izimpawu ezinembile ezisetshenziswa ekuhloleni indawo

AMA-GEOPHONE

ILOLI ELINDINDIZELISA UMHLABA

AMA-HYDROPHONE

UMKHUMBI ONDINDIZELISA AMADWALA ASEKUJULENI KOLWANDLE

Enye inqubo esetshenziswayo, yokuhlola ukunyakaza komhlaba, irekhoda amaza omsindo avela ngaphansi komhlaba lapho umhlaba undindizeliswa ngamabomu

2—UKUWUKHIPHA

IMITHOMBO ESEZWENI

UMBHOSHONGO ONGASOGWINI

UMTHOMBO ONGAPHANSI KWAMANZI

Izinqubo zokukhipha uwoyela zihlanganisa ukusetshenziswa kwemithombo esezweni, engasogwini nengaphansi kolwandle. Ukuze kulondolozwe umfutho ofanele, kungase kumpontshelwe amagesi noma amakhemikhali

[Isithombe]

UMTHOMBO KAWOYELA ONGAPHANSI KWAMANZI

Kusetshenziswa imikhumbi-ngwenya eqondiswa ikude ukuze kwakhiwe izikhungo zokusebenza ekujuleni kolwandle

[Isithombe]

UKUMBA USHONE EMACELENI

Izinjini ezilawulwa unjiniyela ekude ziphendula ibhola, bese imishini ethungathayo ihlola amadwala

3—UKUWUTHUTHA

AMAPAYIPI

UMKHUMBI KAWOYELA

Amapayipi ahamba ngaphezulu, angaphansi komhlaba, nangaphansi kolwandle athutha uwoyela. Ezinye izindlela zokuthutha ezisetshenziswayo zihlanganisa imikhumbi, izikebhe nezinqola zesitimela

4—UKUCWENGA

ISIKHUNGO SOKUWUHLUZA

Uwoyela ongahluziwe uyabaselwa, uhluzwe, bese uhlukaniswa ube yizingxenye ezingase zitshenziselwe ukwenza imikhiqizo evamile

UMBHOSHONGO WOKUHLUZA

Lapho uwoyela onamfukayo, omnyama ubaselwa eziko, ama-hydrocarbon aphenduka amagesi. La magesi abuye aphenduke uketshezi emazingeni okushisa ahlukene. Kanjalo, uwoyela uhlukaniswa ube yizingxenye ezihlukahlukene

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IZIKO LOKUHLUKANISA UWOYELA

Ama-hydrocarbon abaselwa ngesitimu bese ehlanganiswa nekhemikhali eshisayo ehlukanisayo i-alumina-silica gel eyimpuphu. Le nqubo ihlukanisa ama-hydrocarbon abe izinhlayiya ezincane ezisebenziseka kalula

Ikhemikhali ehlukanisayo eyimpushana ihlangana ne- hydrocarbon esitimini

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[Umthombo]

Photo Courtesy of Phillips Petroleum Company

[Igrafu ekhasini 7]

(Ukuze ubone ukuthi indaba ihlelwe kanjani, bheka encwadini)

Imithombo Kawoyela Eyinhloko

Izingqikithi zibalelwa ezinkulungwaneni zezigidi zemiphongolo. Lokhu akuhlanganisi imithombo engakatholakali

▪ Ilungu le-OPEC

• Izwe elinomthombo omkhulu owodwa noma ngaphezulu

Umkhiqizo onqwatshelanisiwe

◆ Imithombo engakathintwa

▪ • ◆ 332,7 SAUDI ARABIA

• ◆ 216,5 UNITED STATES

• ◆ 192,6 RUSSIA

▪ • ◆ 135,9 IRAN

▪ • ◆ 130,6 VENEZUELA

▪ • ◆ 125,1 KUWAIT

▪ • ◆ 122,8 IRAQ

▪ • ◆ 113,3 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

• ◆ 70,9 MEXICO

• ◆ 42,9 CHINA

▪ • ◆ 41,9 LIBYA

▪ ◆ 33,4 NIGERIA

◆ 21,2 CANADA

▪ ◆ 21,0 INDONESIA

◆ 20,5 KAZAKHSTAN

▪ • ◆ 18,3 ALGERIA

◆ 17,6 NORWAY

◆ 16,9 UNITED KINGDOM

[Izithombe ekhasini 4]

Umthombo wokuqala kawoyela ongahluziwe, eTitusville, ePennsylvania, ngo-1859

Uwoyela utshaza emthonjeni eTexas

[Umthombo]

Brown Brothers

[Isithombe ekhasini 5]

Umthombo wokuqala kawoyela eBeaumont, eTexas

[Isithombe ekhasini 5]

Ikalishi lamahhashi elithutha imiphongolo kawoyela

[Isithombe ekhasini 10]

Imithombo kawoyela evutha amalangabi eKuwait

[Umthombo Wesithombe ekhasini 5]

All photos: Brown Brothers