Iyini ITalmud?

“Akungabazeki ukuthi iTalmud enye yezincwadi eziphawuleka kakhulu ezake zenziwa.”—The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia.

“[ITalmud] ingomunye wemisebenzi emikhulu yobuhlakani efezwe uhlanga lwesintu, incwadi eshubile, ecebile, echwepheshe kangangokuthi iye yagcina izingqondo ezikhaliphile zimatasa iminyaka engaphezu kwenkulungwane nengxenye.”—Jacob Neusner, isazi nomlobi ongumJuda.

“ITalmud iyinsika eyinhloko [yobuJuda] esekela konke ukuphila okungokomoya nokuhlakanipha kwamaJuda.—Adin Steinsaltz, isazi seTalmud norabi.

AKUNGATSHAZWA ukuthi iTalmud ibe nethonya elikhulu kumaJuda amakhulu eminyaka. Nokho, ngokuphambene nezingcaphuno ezingenhla eziyincomayo, iTalmud iye yalulazwa futhi yabizwa ngokuthi “ulwandle oludukisayo noludidayo.” Iye yasolwa ngokuthi umsebenzi ohlambalazayo kaDeveli. Ngomyalo kapapa, iye yenqatshelwa ngokuphindaphindiwe, yathathwa ngempoqo kulabo abanayo, futhi kwaze kwashiswa ngisho nezinqwabanqwaba zayo ezinkundleni zomphakathi eYurophu.

Iyini ngempela le ncwadi esivuse impikiswano engaka? Yini eyenza iTalmud ihluke ezincwadini zamaJuda? Yabhalelwani? Iye yaba kanjani nethonya elingaka ebuJudeni? Ingabe inokubaluleka okuthile emphakathini okungewona owamaJuda?

Phakathi neminyaka engu-150 ngemva kokubhujiswa kwethempeli eJerusalema ngo-70 C.E., izikole zezazi ezingorabi kulo lonke elakwa-Israyeli zafuna ngokuphuthumayo isisekelo esisha esasizokwenza kuqhutshekwe nemikhuba yobuJuda. Zaba nezinkulumo-mpikiswano, zabe sezihlanganisa ndawonye amasiko ahlukahlukene emithetho yazo edluliselwa ngomlomo. Zakhela kulesi sisekelo, zamisa imingcele nezimfuneko ezintsha zobuJuda, zinikeza iziqondiso ngokuphathelene nokuphila ngobungcwele kwansuku zonke ngaphandle kwethempeli. Lesi simiso esisha esingokomoya salotshwa kuyiMishnah, eyahlanganiswa uJudah ha-Nasi ekuqaleni kwekhulu lesithathu leminyaka C.E.a

IMishnah izimele, ayidingi ubufakazi obusekelwe ezikhombweni zeBhayibheli. Indlela yayo yokuthuthukisa ingxoxo ngisho nendlela yokubeka isiHeberu kuhlukile, akufani nemibhalo yeBhayibheli. Izinqumo zorabi ezicashunwe kuyiMishnah zingathinta ukuphila kwansuku zonke kwamaJuda kuyo yonke indawo. Ngokufanelekile, uJacob Neusner uyaphawula: “IMishnah yaba umthetho-sisekelo ka-Israyeli. . . . Yafuna ukuba kuvunyelwane nayo futhi kwenziwe ngokuvumelana nemithetho yayo.”

Kodwa kuthiwani uma abathile bengabaza ukuthi igunya lezazi ezicashunwe kuyiMishnah liyalingana ngempela nelemiBhalo eyambuliwe? Orabi kungadingeka babonise ukuthi izimfundiso zamaTannaim (abafundisi bomthetho odluliselwa ngomlomo) ezitholakala kuyiMishnah zivumelana ngokuphelele nemiBhalo YesiHeberu. Kwadingeka enye incwadi echazayo. Babona kunesidingo sokuchaza nokufakazela iMishnah futhi banikeze ubufakazi bokuthi yathathelwa eMthethweni owanikwa uMose eSinayi. Orabi bazizwa bephoqelekile ukuba banikeze ubufakazi bokuthi umthetho odluliselwa ngomlomo nomthetho olotshiwe kunesisusa nenjongo efanayo. Khona-ke, kunokuba ibe incwadi enegunya lokugcina ebuJudeni, iMishnah yaba isisekelo esisha sezingxoxo nezinkulumo-mpikiswano zenkolo.

Indlela ITalmud Eyakhiwe Ngayo

Orabi abaqhubeka nale nselele babaziwa ngokuthi ama-Amoraim—“abahumushi,” noma “abachazi,” beMishnah. Isikole ngasinye sasigxile kurabi oyedwa. Iqembu elincane lezazi nabafundi laliba nezingxoxo unyaka wonke. Kodwa izikhathi ezazibaluleke kakhulu zaziba kabili ngonyaka, ngenyanga ka-Adar neka-Elul, lapho umsebenzi wezolimo wawungemningi futhi amakhulu noma ngisho nezinkulungwane ezengeziwe zaziba khona.

U-Adin Steinsaltz uyachaza: “Umphathi wesikole wayengamela, ahlale esihlalweni noma komata abakhethekile. Emigqeni engaphambili maqondana naye kwakuhlala izazi ezibalulekile, kuhlanganise nabefundisi asebenza nabo noma abafundi abavelele, bese kuthi ngemva kwabo kube yizo zonke ezinye izazi. . . . Indlela yokuhlala yayisekelwe ezikhundleni zabefundisi ezimiswe ngokucophelela [kuya ngokwezinga lokubaluleka].” Kwakufundwa ingxenye ethile yeMishnah. Leyo ngxenye yayibe isiqhathaniswa nokwaziswa okufana nayo noma okwenezelayo okuqoqwe amaTannaim kodwa okungahlanganisiwe kuyiMishnah. Kwakube sekuqala inqubo yokuhlaziya. Kwakuphonswa imibuzo, futhi ukungavumelani kwakuhlaziywa ukuze kutholakale ukuvumelana kwezici ezibalulekile zezimfundiso. Kwakufunwa ubufakazi obuthathwe emiBhalweni YesiHeberu ukuze kusekelwe izimfundiso zorabi.

Nakuba zazihlelwe ngokucophelela, lezi zingxoxo zazishuba, ngezinye izikhathi zibe nokuxokozela. Esinye isazi esicashunwe kuyiTalmud sathi kwakugqamuka “izinhlansi zomlilo” emilonyeni yorabi phakathi nenkulumo-mpikiswano. (Hullin 137b, ITalmud YaseBabiloni) USteinsaltz uthi ngalokho okwakwenzeka: “Umphathi wesikole, noma isazi esethula isifundo, sasibeka izinkinga ngendlela yaso. Ngokuvamile izazi ezilalele zazimgidlabeza ngemibuzo ngokusekelwe kweminye imithombo, emibonweni yabanye abahlaziyi, noma eziphethweni zabo ezinengqondo. Ngezinye izikhathi inkulumo-mpikiswano yayiba mfushane kakhulu futhi kube nje nempendulo ecacile newumnqamulajuqu yombuzo obuziwe. Kwezinye izimo ezinye izazi zazinikeza ezinye izindlela zokuxazulula izinkinga bese kuvuka inkulumo-mpikiswano enkulu.” Bonke abakhona babekhululekile ukuba babe nengxenye. Izindaba ezixazululiwe kulezo zingxoxo zazidluliselwa kwezinye izikole ukuze zibukezwe ezinye izazi.

Nokho, lezo zingxoxo zazingezona nje izinkulumo-mpikiswano ezingokomthetho ezingapheli. Izindaba ezingokomthetho eziphathelene nemithetho nezimiso zokuphila okungokwenkolo kobuJuda kubizwa ngokuthi iHalakah. Leli gama livela egameni lesiHeberu elisho “ukuhamba” futhi lisho ‘indlela yokuphila umuntu okufanele ayilandele.’ Zonke ezinye izindaba—izindaba eziphathelene norabi nabantu okukhulunywa ngabo eBhayibhelini, amazwi ahlakaniphile, izindaba zenkolelo nefilosofi—zibizwa ngokuthi iHaggadah, okuyigama elivela egameni lesiHeberu elisho “ukusho.” IHalakah neHaggadah kwakuhlanganiswa ndawonye ezinkulumweni-mpikiswano zorabi.

Encwadini yakhe ethi The World of the Talmud, uMorris Adler uyaphawula: “Umfundisi ohlakaniphile wayephazamisa impikiswano ende nenzima engokomthetho ngokuphambukela kwengajulile neyakha ngokwengeziwe. . . . Ngakho sithola inganekwane nomlando, isayensi yangaleso sikhathi namasiko nezinganekwane zesizwe, izincazelo zeBhayibheli nemilando yokuphila kwabantu, intshumayelo nemfundiso yenkolo kuhlanganiswe ndawonye ngendlela yokuthi, kumuntu ongajwayelene nezindlela zalezo zikole, kubonakala kuyingxubevange yokwaziswa okungahlelekile.” Ezazini zezikole, zonke lezo zindaba eziyimixhantela zazinenjongo futhi zazihlobene nephuzu okuxoxwa ngalo. IHalakah neHaggadah kwakuyizisekelo zesimiso esisha esasakhiwa ezikoleni zorabi.

Indlela AmaTalmud Amabili Akhiwe Ngayo

Ekugcineni, isikhungo esiyinhloko sorabi ePalestina sathuthela eTiberiya. Kwaba nezinye izikole ezibalulekile eSepphoris, eKesariya naseLida. Kodwa ukuwohloka kwesimo sezomnotho, ukungazinzi okuqhubekayo kwezombangazwe, futhi ekugcineni nokucindezela kanye nokushushiswa okuvela ebuKristwini obuhlubukayo kwaholela ekuthutheni kwabantu abaningi beya kwesinye isikhungo esikhulu somphakathi wamaJuda esiseMpumalanga—eBabiloni.

Kwase kungamakhulu eminyaka abafundi abavela eBabiloni bethutheleka ePalestina beyofundiswa orabi abakhulu ezikoleni zalapho. Omunye umfundi onjalo kwakungu-Abba ben Ibo, owayebizwa nangokuthi u-Abba Arika—u-Abba omude—kodwa kamuva waziwa ngokuthi nje uRab. Wabuyela eBabiloni cishe ngo-219 C.E. ngemva kokufundiswa uJudah ha-Nasi, futhi kwaba isikhathi soshintsho olwalubalulekile ngokomoya emphakathini wamaJuda aseBabiloni. URab wamisa isikole eSura, indawo eyayinamaJuda amaningi kodwa inezazi ezimbalwa. Idumela lakhe lahehela abafundi abangu-1 200 basikhathi sonke esikoleni sakhe, nezinye izinkulungwane ezaziza ngezinyanga zamaJuda zika-Adar no-Elul. Umuntu ovelele owayephila ngesikhathi sikaRab, uSamuel, wamisa isikole eNehardea. Kwavela nezinye izikole ezibalulekile ePumbeditha naseMehoza.

Manje sasingasekho isidingo sokuya ePalestina, ngoba umuntu wayengafundiswa izazi ezinkulu khona eBabiloni. Ukwenziwa kweMishnah ibe incwadi ezimele kwacaba indlela yokuba izikole zaseBabiloni zizimele ngokuphelele. Nakuba kwase kunezindlela zokufundisa ezihlukahlukene ePalestina naseBabiloni, ukuxhumana njalo nokushintshana ngabafundisi kwalondoloza ubunye balezi zikole.

Ngasekupheleni kwekhulu lesine nasekuqaleni kwelesihlanu C.E., isimo saba nzima ngokukhethekile kumaJuda asePalestina. Ukuvinjelwa nokushushiswa okwakwenzeka izikhawu ngaphansi kwegunya elidlondlobalayo leLobukholwa elihlubukile kwaholela egalelweni lokugcina lokuqedwa kwakho kokubili iSanhedrini nesikhundla sikaNasi (inzalamizi) cishe ngo-425 C.E. Ngakho ama-Amoraim asePalestina aqala ukuhlanganisela izinkulumo-mpikiswano ezifushanisiwe zasezikoleni encwadini eyodwa evumelanayo ukuze zilondolozwe. Le ncwadi eyahlanganiswa ngokuphamazela ngasekupheleni kwekhulu lesine C.E., yaziwa ngokuthi iTalmud YasePalestina.b

Nakuba izikole zaziya zincipha ePalestina, amakhono ama-Amoraim aseBabiloni ayethuthuka kakhulu. U-Abaye noRaba baphendula izinkulumo-mpikiswano zaba izimpikiswano eziyinkimbinkimbi nezinzima, kamuva ezasetshenziselwa ukuhlaziya iTalmud. Ngemva kwalokho, u-Ashi, umphathi wesikole saseSura (371-427 C.E.), waqala ukuhlanganisa nokulungisa izinkulumo-mpikiswano ezifushanisiwe. NgokukaSteinsaltz, wenza kanjalo “esaba ukuthi, njengoba zazingahlelekile, lezi zinqwabanqwaba zokwaziswa okudluliselwe ngomlomo zazisengozini yokuba zilitshalwe.”

Lezi zinqwabanqwaba zokwaziswa zazingenakulungiswa umuntu oyedwa noma ngisho isizukulwane esisodwa. Inkathi yama-Amoraim yaphela ngekhulu lesihlanu leminyaka C.E. eBabiloni, kodwa umsebenzi wokulungiswa kokugcina kweTalmud YaseBabiloni waqhubeka kwaze kwaba yikhulu lesithupha leminyaka C.E. wenziwa iqembu elibizwa ngokuthi amaSaboraim, igama lesi-Aramu elisho “abachazi,” noma “abantu abanemibono.” Laba bahleli bokugcina bahlanganisela ndawonye izinkulungwane zezingxenye ezazingahlanganisiwe nezinkulumo-mpikiswano zaworabi zamakhulu eminyaka, benza iTalmud YaseBabiloni yaba nendlela nesimo esiyenza ihluke kuzo zonke izincwadi zangaphambili zamaJuda.

Yini Eyafezwa ITalmud?

Orabi abenza iTalmud babefuna ukufakazela ukuthi iMishnah yayivela emthonjeni ofanayo nemiBhalo YesiHeberu. Ngani? UJacob Neusner uyaphawula: “Kwakuthiwa indaba iwukuthi imiphi iMishnah. Kodwa kuyabonakala ukuthi umnyombo wendaba wawuyigunya lesazi ngokwaso.” Ukuze kuqiniswe leli gunya, umusho ngamunye weMishnah, ngezinye izikhathi izwi ngalinye, kwakuhlolwa, kubekelwe inselele, kuchazwe bese kuvunyelaniswa nendlela ethile. UNeusner uphawula ukuthi ngale ndlela orabi “bashintsha injongo yeMishnah beyichezukisa endleleni yayo.” Nakuba yakhiwe yaba incwadi ezimele, iMishnah manje yayisicubunguliwe. Phakathi nale nqubo, yakhiwa futhi yachazwa kabusha.

Le ncwadi entsha—iTalmud—yayisifeza izinjongo zorabi. Bamisa imithetho yokuhlaziya, futhi ngaleyo ndlela yafundisa abantu ukuba bacabange njengorabi. Orabi babekholelwa ukuthi indlela yabo yokufunda nokuhlaziya yayibonisa umqondo kaNkulunkulu. Kwagxilwa ekutadisheni iTalmud ngokwayo, yaba indlela yokukhulekela—kucatshangwa ukuthi lokho kwakuwukusetshenziswa kwengqondo ngendlela yokulingisa uNkulunkulu. Ezizukulwaneni ezizayo, iTalmud yayisazocwaningwa ngayo le ndlela. Waba yini umphumela? Isazi-mlando uCecil Roth siyabhala: “ITalmud . . . yenza [amaJuda] ahluka kwabanye, yawanika namandla aphawulekayo okuzabalaza nokubumbana. Ulimi lwayo lwakhaliphisa izingqondo zawo, futhi yawanika . . . nokuqonda. . . . ITalmud yanika umJuda oshushiswayo weNkathi Ephakathi elinye izwe angabalekela kulo . . . Yamnika izwe lawoyise, ayengalithatha ahambe nalo lapho elahlekelwa izwe lakubo.”

Ngokufundisa abanye ukucabanga korabi, iTalmud ngokuqinisekile iye yaba namandla. Kodwa umbuzo obhekiswe kuwo wonke umuntu—umJuda nongeyena umJuda—yilona, Ingabe iTalmud ibonisa umqondo kaNkulunkulu ngempela?—1 Korinte 2:11-16.

[Imibhalo yaphansi]

[Ibhokisi ekhasini 31]

AmaTalmud Amabili—Anjani Uma Eqhathaniswa?

Igama lesiHeberu elithi “Talmud” lisho “ukutadisha” noma “ukufunda.” Ama-Amoraim asePalestina nawaseBabiloni ayezimisele ukutadisha, noma ukuhlaziya iMishnah. Womabili amaTalmud (eyasePalestina neyaseBabiloni) ayakwenza lokhu, kodwa anjani uma eqhathaniswa? UJacob Neusner uyabhala: “ITalmud yokuqala ihlaziya ubufakazi, eyesibili ihlola lokho okucatshangelwayo; eyokuqala igcina ngaphakathi kwemingcele yodaba eluhlaziyayo, eyesibili iyayeqa kakhulu.”

Ukuhlelwa okunzulu nokucubungulisisayo kweTalmud YaseBabiloni akuzange kuyenze ibe nkulu kakhulu nje kuphela kodwa yaba ejule negxile kakhulu endleleni yayo yokucabanga nokuhlaziya. Lapho kukhulunywa ‘ngeTalmud,’ ngokuvamile kusuke kushiwo iTalmud YaseBabiloni. Lena yiTalmud eye yatadishwa kakhulu futhi kwaphawulwa ngayo amakhulu eminyaka. Ngokombono kaNeusner, iTalmud YasePalestina “iwumsebenzi wekhono,” futhi iTalmud YaseBabiloni “umsebenzi wenjula-buchopho.”