Ukuphakama Nokuwa Kwezentengiselwano Zomhlaba

Ingxenye 3—Ezentengiselwano Ezinobugovu Ziziveza Lokho Eziyikho Ngempela

NJENGOBA ikhulu le-16 leminyaka laliqala, enyakatho ezentengiselwano zaseYurophu zazibuswa iHanseatic League, okuyinhlangano yokwakha amathuba okuhweba namanye amazwe yasemadolobheni aseNyakatho Jalimane; emazweni asentshonalanga yakhiwe iNgilandi neNetherlands; futhi ngaseningizimu yakhiwe iVenice.

Emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka, iVenice yaba ingqongqo yokuhweba ngezinongo. Izivumelwano ezazenziwe nama-Arabhu, futhi kamuva nabantu baseTurkey bombuso weOttoman, zavala ngokuphumelelayo imizila yokuhweba kulabo ababengase babe izimbangi. Uma abanye babezobekela lokhu kuba yingqongqo inselele, kufanele bathole imizila emisha eya Empumalanga Ekude. Ukufuna kwaqala. Omunye umphumela walokhu kuhlola kwakuwukutholwa kanye nokulawulwa kweningizimu nenyakatho yeMelika.

Phakathi nawo-1490 upapa wanika iPortugal neSpain imvume yokukhankasela ukunqoba izwe elalingakaziwa ngalesosikhathi. Kodwa kwakunokungaphezu nje kwezinkolelo ezingokwenkolo okwashukumisa lemibuso emibili yamaKatolika. UProfesa Shepard Clough uyaphawula: “Ngokushesha nje lapho amalungelo ayo eseqinisekisiwe okuba abanikazi bezingxenye ezisanda kutholwa zomhlaba, lemibuso yaphamazela iphuthuma ukuthola izinzuzo ezingokomnotho eyayingase izithole kulokho ekutholayo. Kwakunokuhaha okungesikho okwemvelo ekulindeleni kwalamavulandlela ukuba acebe ngokushesha. Lokhu ukuphawula okuthakazelisayo kokubili ngokuphathelene nezisusa ezabangela ukuyofuna amazwe amasha kanye nemiqondo eminingi egcwele emazweni aseNtshonalanga.” Ukuhahela igolide kanye namakholwa kwashukumisela abanqobi baseSpain ukuba baphange iZwe Elisha.

Ngalesosikhathi, iNetherlands yayikhula iba umbuso ophethe wezentengiselwano, okuyisimo okwakungekho ngqongqo yezentengiselwano eyayingasinqanda. Empeleni, phakathi nekhulu le-17 leminyaka, kwakusobala ukuthi kwakuyiNgilandi kuphela eyayinamandla ngokwanele ukuba ibekele amaDashi inselele. Umncintiswano wezomnotho washuba. Ingakapheli iminyaka engu-30, ngo-1618, iNgilandi yaliphinda kabili inani lemikhumbi yayo; maphakathi nekhulu le-17 leminyaka, imikhumbi yabadayisi bamaDashi yayiliphinda kane inani lemikhumbi yaseItaly, ePortugal, neyaseSpain ihlangene.

Ngaleyondlela isikhungo sezentengiselwano saseYurophu sagudluka sisuka eMedithera siya ogwini lwaseAtlantic. Ekubiza ngokuthi “inguquko yezentengiselwano” nanokuthi “olunye loshintsho lwezindawo olukhulu kakhulu emlandweni,” uClough uthi kwakha “ukuchuma okungokomnotho okwenza ukuba ezombangazwe kanye nempucuko yaseNtshonalanga Yurophu kulawule impucuko yamazwe aseNtshonalanga.”

Imibuso Yakhelwa Kokungaphezu Nje Kukashukela Nezinongo

Ngo-1602 amaDashi ahlanganisa izinkampani eziningana zezohwebo ezaziqondiswa abadayisi bawo futhi abumba iDutch East India Company. Emashumini eminyaka alandela, ngaphandle kokuba nesilinganiso esithile sempumelelo yezentengiselwano eJapan naseJava, yakhipha amaPutukezi kulokho namuhla okuyiNtshonalanga Malaysia, iSri Lanka, kanye neMoluccas (iziQhingi Zezinongo). “NjengamaPutukezi nabaseSpain,” kusho uClough, “[amaDashi] ayefuna ukuzigcinela wona kuphela izinzuzo zokuhwebelana kwamazwe aseMpumalanga.” Futhi lokho akumangalisi! Ukuhweba kwakuzuzisa kakhulu kangangokuba ngekhulu le-17 leminyaka, iNetherlands yayisibe izwe elicebe kakhulu ngokwenani labantu eNtshonalanga Yurophu. IAmsterdam yaba isikhungo samazwe aseNtshonalanga sezimali nezohwebo.—Bheka ibhokisi, ikhasi 23.

IDenmark neFrance akha izinkampani ezifanayo. Kodwa eyokuqala, futhi leyo kamuva eyaba nethonya kakhulu, yasungulwa ngo-1600, iEnglish East India Company. Yathatha indawo yeyaseFrance neyasePortugal eNdiya. Kamuva amaNgisi athola ukuvelela kwezentengiselwano naseChina.

Ngalesosikhathi, eNtshonalanga yeNkabazwe, iDutch West India Company yayiqhuba ibhizinisi likashukela, ugwayi, kanye noboya. Futhi amaNgisi, ngemva kokumisa ngokomthetho iHudson’s Bay Company eCanada ngo-1670, ayematasa ezama ukuthola indlela elibangise enyakatho-ntshonalanga ePacific njengoba ayehwebelana namazwe aseduze neHudson Bay.

Intatheli yezindaba uPeter Newman uthi umbango phakathi kweHudson’s Bay Company kanye nenye yezimbangi zayo, iNorth West Company, “kwakuwukuncintisanela izimakethe kanye noboya kwamabhizinisi, kodwa ngokushesha kwaphenduka kwaba ukuhahela ukubusa kanye nendawo. . . . Zombili lezinhlangothi zalungisa izindaba zazo ngokuchitha igazi.” Izisulu zangempela zazingabantu baseIndia lezinkampani zombili ezazihweba nabo. Uthi, “Utshwala baba imali yokuhweba ngoboya,” anezele ngokuthi “lokhu kuhwebelana ngotshwala konakalisa imikhaya futhi kwalimaza impucuko yaseNdiya.”a

Ngakho kwaba khona imibuso emibili emikhulu nenethonya, yomibili eyayakhelwe kokungaphezulu nje kukashukela nezinongo—nasegazini! Ezentengiselwano ezinobugovu zaziziveza lokho eziyikho ngempela. Njengoba iColumbia History of the World isho: “AmaDashi namaNgisi ahamba ngomkhumbi ezungeza izilwandle zomhlaba njengamanxusa ezinhlangano zezentengiselwano anokukhathalela . . . Ngalezinkampane isisusa sokuthola inzuzo sasisobala.”—Omalukeke sizenzele.

Ukuzuza Ngokulahlekelwa Kwabanye

Kusukela ekhulwini le-16 kuya kwele-18 leminyaka, isimiso sezomnotho esaziwa ngokuthi imercantilism sawuthonya kakhulu umqondo weYurophu. INew Encyclopædia Britannica iyachaza: “[Imercantilism] yagcizelela ukuthi ukuthola ingcebo, ikakhulu ingcebo eyigolide, kwakubaluleke kakhulu enkambisweni yesizwe. . . . Inkambiso yezohwebo eyayakhiwe ifilosofi yemercantilism yayingeyona inkimbinkimbi ngokufanelekile: yayikhuthaza ukuthunyelwa kwezinto kwamanye amazwe, ingakukhuthazi ukuthengwa kwezinto zakwamanye amazwe, bese ithatha imali esele yegolide elithunyelwe kwamanye amazwe.”

Ukusebenzisa lenkambiso ngokuvamile kwakuphumela ebugebengwini obukhulu. Amakoloni ayexhashazwa njengoba amathani amaningi egolide ayethathwa ngesidlozane ukuze kuzuziswe izwe angaphansi kwalo. Ngamazwi alula, imercantilism yabonisa isimo sokuzazisa, sobugovu leso umkhakha wezentengiselwano owawusikhuthaze kusukela ekuqaleni kwawo, okuwumoya osekhona.

Imercantilism yayinabagxeki bayo, omunye omkhulu kwakunguAdam Smith waseScotland. Isazi sefilosofi yezenhlalo esaziwayo nesazi sokuhlobana kwezombangazwe nezomnotho, uSmith sashicilela ukuhlola okuphathelene nezomnotho ngo-1776 okwabhalwa ngaphansi kwesihloko esithi An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Nakuba ayemelene nemercantilism, uSmith akazange akhulume ngokumelene nokuphishekela inzuzo njengokushukunyiswa isifiso somuntu sokuzizuzisa yena siqu. Ngokuphambene nalokho, waphikisa ngokuthi abantu babeholwa “isandla esingabonakali” esibashukumisela ukuba bahileleke emncintiswaneni ongokomnotho lapho bephishekela lokho okuzuzisa umuntu siqu; kodwa lokho kufuna ukuzizuzisa komuntu siqu, wathi kungazuzisa umphakathi wonke.

USmith wasekela umbono welaissez-faire (ngesiFulentshi: “vumela ukwenza”), umqondo wokuthi ohulumeni kufanele bangenele kancane ngangokunokwenzeka ezindabeni zezomnotho zomuntu ngamunye. Ngaleyondlela wezwakalisa ngokucacile umqondo wesimiso sakudala sokuzisebenzela.

Isimiso sokuzisebenzela, isimiso esande kakhulu namuhla, futhi njengoba abanye besho okuyisimiso sezomnotho esiphumelela kakhulu, siphawulwa ukuba nento ethi wena, ukuhwebelana ngenkululeko kwabantu ngabanye noma izinkampani ezincintisanayo ngenjongo yokuthola inzuzo. Umlando wanamuhla wesimiso sokuzisebenzela waqala ngekhulu le-16 leminyaka emadolobheni aseItaly ephakathi nesenyakatho, kodwa umsuka wawo ufinyelela kude kakhulu. UProfesa Wezomlando Osathatha Umhlala-phansi uElias J. Bickerman uchaza ukuthi “ukusetshenziswa kwezomnotho kwegama [lesiNgisi] elithi ‘capital’ elivela kwelesiLatin elithi caput, elisho ‘ikhanda,’ kuhlehlela emuva egameni laseBabiloni nalo elalisho ‘ikhanda’ futhi elalinokubaluleka okufanayo okungokomnotho.”

Ezentengiselwano zembula lokho eziyikho ngempela ekuphishekeleni komuntu ngamunye noma isizwe lokho okuzuzisa sona kuphela. Ngokwesibonelo, azizange zikuyeke ukufihla iqiniso. ICollins Atlas of World History ithi: “Umdwebi wamabalazwe naye uye waba negalelo, futhi ngezinye izikhathi walawulwa amasu ezentengiselwano kungengentando yakhe. Okuvubukulwayo kwembula inqwaba yemithombo yengcebo. Ingabe umdwebi wamabalazwe angavunyelwa ukuba embulele umhlaba lokhu kwaziswa? Ingabe akungcono okungenani akufihle kulabo okungenzeka babe izimbangi? . . . Ekhulwini le-17 leminyaka, iDutch East India Company ayizange izishicilele izincwadi ezazizonika izimbangi zayo ukwaziswa.”

Ezentengiselwano ziye zenza okubi kakhulu. Kusukela ekhulwini le-17 kuya kwele-19 leminyaka, zenza ibhizinisi lokudayisa izigidi ezilinganiselwa kweziyishumi zabantu baseAfrika ebugqilini, izinkulungwane eziningi zabo zafela endleleni elibangise eningizimu nasenyakatho yeMelika. Incwadi iRoots, ka-Alex Haley, kanye nomdlalo wethelevishini wango-1977 okubonisa ngokoqobo lokho ekuqukethe, kwaveza umfanekiso ongokoqobo walolusizi olubuhlungu.

Izinto Zokwakha—Zazizosetshenziswa Kanjani?

Kusukela ekuqaleni komlando wesintu, abantu abangaphelele baye bafunda ngokwenza amaphutha. Kungengokwambulelwa kwaphezulu, kodwa ngokucwaninga ngokungakhathali noma mhlawumbe ngengozi, bathola amaqiniso ayisisekelo ezesayensi, asetshenziswa ekusunguleni izinto ezintsha. Ngo-1750, njengoba iGreat Britain yayiqala ukuyeka ezomnotho zezolimo yaya kwezomnotho ezibuswa izimboni kanye nokusetshenziswa kwemishini, ezinye zalezizinto ezasungulwa—njengezinto zokwakha—zazikhona ukuze zisetshenziselwe ukwakha umhlaba omusha.

Umshini wokudonsa amanzi (windmill), owaqala ukwaziwa eIran naseAfghanistan ngekhulu lesithupha nelesikhombisa C.E., wacaba indlela yokutholwa nokuthuthukiswa kweminye imithombo yamandla. Kodwa ingabe ezentengiselwano ezinobugovu zaziyovuma ukudela izinzuzo ezinkulu ukuze ziqikelele ukuthi lemithombo ilondekile, ayingcoliswa, futhi kungathenjelwa kuyo? Noma ingabe zaziyosizakala ngesimo esibucayi samandla—ngokunokwenzeka zize ngisho zisenze sibe khona—ukuze kuzuze zona?

Insizi yesibhamu, eyasungulwa eChina ngekhulu leshumi leminyaka, yathuthukisa umsebenzi wezimayini nowokwakha. Kodwa ingabe ezentengiselwano ezinobugovu zaziyoba nesibindi sokungayisebenzisi kabi ukuze zenze izikhali zokucebisa abadayisi bezikhali ngokulahleka kokuphila kwabantu?

Insimbi eyenziwe ngamanyela, ngokunokwenzeka eyatholakala eChina cishe ngekhulu lesithupha leminyaka C.E., iyona eyatholakala kuqala ngaphambi kwensimbi yoqobo izwe lanamuhla elalizokwakhelwa kuyo. Kodwa ingabe ezentengiselwano ezinobugovu zaziyozimisela ukunciphisa izinzuzo zazo ukuze zivimbele ukungcola, izingozi, kanye nokuminyana okwakuzolethwa inkathi yezezimboni?

Isikhathi esasizosho. Kunoma ikuphi, lezi kanye nezinye izinto zokwakha kwakumelwe zisize ekuletheni inguquko yomhlaba leyo, nayo, eyayizosiza ekuholeleni kokuthile umhlaba owawungakaze ukubone ngaphambili. Funda kumagazini wethu olandelayo: “Inguquko Yezezimboni—Yaholelaphi?”

[Umbhalo waphansi]

[Ibhokisi ekhasini 23]

Ibhizinisi Lamabhange

B.C.E.: Amathempeli aseBabiloni lasendulo nawaseGrisi ayenezinhlamvu zemali elethwe abaniniyo ukuze ilondolozwe; ngenxa yokuthi kwakungekho bantu abadinga imali yabo ewuhlweza ngesikhathi esisodwa, enye yayo yayingabolekwa abanye.

INkathi Ephakathi: Isimiso samabhange esikhona manje siyaqala, sithuthukiswa abathengisi baseItaly ababesebenzisa abefundisi abahamba yonke indawo njengamanxusa adlulisa izincwadi zesikweleti zisuka kwelinye izwe ziya kwelinye; eNgilandi abantu abasebenza ngegolide baqala ukubolekisa ngenzalo imali efakwe kubo ukuze igcinwe.

1408: Inhlangano abanye abayibiza ngokuthi umanduleli wamabhange anamuhla yasungulwa eGenoa, eItaly, yalandelwa ezinye ezifana nayo eVenice (1587) naseAmsterdam (1609). Esinye isazimlando sithi “izinkonzo ezinhle ezazenziwa iBank of Amsterdam zaba nengxenye ekwenzeni iAmsterdam ibe isikhungo sezimali zomhlaba.”

1661: IBank of Stockholm, eliwumxhantela weBank of Amsterdam, laqala ukukhipha imali engamaphepha (izithembiso ezenziwa ibhange zokukhokhela lowo onayo), okuyindlela kamuva eyathuthukiswa iNgilandi.

1670: Indawo yokuqala enakekelwa amabhange, eyavulwa eLondon, kwakuyibhizinisi lebhange lokukhokhelana izikweleti; ukuqala kwesheke lanamuhla, futhi ngawo lonyaka, lavumela ukuba ikhasimende lebhange lidlulisele imali kwamanye amabhange noma lidlulisele kwabanye abantu ingxenye yemali elinayo ebhange.

1694: Ukumiswa kweBank of England, eyaba ibhange elihamba phambili ekukhipheni imali engamaphepha (umakhi wemali eyiphepha).

1944: Ukwakhiwa kweInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development, elabizwa futhi ngokuthi iWorld Bank, inhlangano ekhethekile ehlobene kakhulu neZizwe Ezihlangene neliklanyelwe ukunikeza usizo lwezimali emazweni angamalungu ngenxa yemisebenzi yokwakha kabusha nezokuthuthukiswa.

1946: I-International Monetary Fund eyamiswa ukuze “ithuthukise ukubambisana ngezezimali, ukungashintshashintshi kwemali esetshenjiswayo, ukwandiswa kwezohwebo; ukuhlangabezana nezinkinga ezibangelwa ukuthenga izinto eziningi ezivela kwamanye amazwe kunezithunyelwa kuwo.”—The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia.

1989: IDelors Plan ihlongoza ukuba iEuropean Community ibe nemali efanayo eyisebenzisayo futhi imise iEuropean Central Bank phakathi nawo-1990.

1991: Ukuvulwa kwe-European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, inhlangano eyakhiwa ngo-1990 izizwe ezingaphezu kuka-40 ukuze inikeze usizo olungokwezimali ekuvuseleleni ezomnotho ezintengantengayo zaseMpumalanga Yurophu.

[Isithombe ekhasini 21]

AmaNdiya, ngokuvamile ayekhokhelwa ngotshwala, ayeyizisulu zezentengiselwano zomlungu

[Umthombo]

Harper’s Encyclopædia of United States History