Indlela Ukuphila Kwawo Okwashintsha Ngayo
IMINYAKA eminingi indaba ye-United States yayifingqwa ngalamazwi, “Indlela iNtshonalanga eyanqotshwa ngayo.” Amafilimu aseHollywood ayebonisa abafuduki abamhlophe benqamula amathafa nezintaba zaseMelika, amasosha anjengoJohn Wayne, ama-cowboy, nabafuduki belwa namaNdiya anolaka, unya, futhi aphatha izizenze. Nakuba abamhlophe babefuna izwe negolide, abanye babapristi nabashumayeli beLobukholwa kwakucatshangwa ukuthi basindisa imiphefumulo.
Ubukeka kanjani lowo mlando ngokombono wezakhamuzi zomdabu, abantu bomdabu baseMelika? Lapho kufika abeLungu, amaNdiya “aphoqeleka ukuba abhekane nabantu abanonya ngendlela angakaze ayibone ezweni lawo: abahlaseli abamhlophe baseYurophu,” kusho incwadi ethi The Native Americans—An Illustrated History.
Ukuvumelana Okwaholela Engxabanweni
Ekuqaleni, abeLungu abaningi abafika kuqala eNyakatho-mpumalanga yeMelika baphathwa ngomusa futhi abomdabu babambisana nabo. Okunye ukulandisa kuthi: “Ngaphandle kosizo lwamaPowhatan, idolobhana laseBrithani eJamestown, eVirginia, okuyikoloni lokuqala laseNgilandi elizinzile eNtshonalanga Nenkabazwe, lalingeke lisinde phakathi nobusika bokuqala obunzima ngo-1607-08. Ngokufanayo, ikoloni lezihambi ePlymouth, eMassachusetts, ngabe alizange libe khona ngaphandle kosizo lwamaWampanoag.” Abanye bomdabu babonisa abafuduki indlela yokuvundisa inhlabathi nokutshala izilimo. Futhi lwaluyophumelela kangakanani uhambo lukaLewis noClark lwango-1804-06—lokuthola izinto zokuthutha ezixhumanisa isiFundazwe saseLouisiana nalokho okwakuthiwa iZwe lase-Oregon—ngaphandle kosizo nokungenela kowesifazane wamaShoshone uSacagawea? ‘Wayeyisibonakaliso sabo sokuthula’ lapho bebhekene ngeziqu zamehlo namaNdiya.
Nokho, ngenxa yendlela yabeLungu yokusebenzisa izwe nokudla okuyingcosana okwakutholakala, ukufudukela eNyakatho Melika okukhulu kwabangela izingxabano phakathi kwabahlaseli nabomdabu. Isazi-mlando saseCanada u-Ian K. Steele sichaza ukuthi ekhulwini le-17, kwakunamaNarragansett angu-30-000 eMassachusetts. Induna yawo uMiantonomo, “eqaphela ingozi, . . . wafuna ukwakha ubuhlobo namaMohawk ukuze aqinise umzabalazo omkhulu wamaNdiya AseMelika.” Kubikwa ukuthi ngo-1642 wathi kumaMontauk: “[Kumelwe] sibe munye [njengamaNgisi], ngaphandle kwalokho sonke sizonyamalala ngokushesha, ngoba niyazi ukuthi obaba babenamaphiva amaningi nezikhumba, amathafa akithi ayegcwele amaphiva, namahlathi akithi [ayenamagalikuni], namachweba akithi egcwele izinhlanzi nezinyoni. Kodwa ngemva kokuba lamaNgisi esethathe izwe lethu, asika utshani ngamasikela, agawula amahlathi ngezimbazo; izinkomo namahhashi awo adla utshani, nezingulube zawo zonakalisa izingu zethu ezinezimbaza, futhi sizolamba sonke.”—I-Warpaths—Invasions of North America.
Imizamo kaMiantonomo yokubumba inhlangano yamaMelika Omdabu enobunye yaba nhlanga zimuka nomoya. Ngo-1643, empini yesizwe, wathunjwa iNduna u-Uncas wesizwana samaMohegan, eyamyisa kumaNgisi njengomvukeli. AmaNgisi ayengenakumbopha futhi ambulale ngokusemthethweni uMiantonomo. Acabanga ikhambi elilula. USteele uyaqhubeka: “Njengoba babengakwazi ukubulala [uMiantonomo], owayengekho ngaphansi kwanoma ikuphi ukubuswa kwamakoloni, okhomishane bacela u-Uncas ukuba ambulale, kukhona ofakazi bamaNgisi ukuze baqinisekise ukuthi wayebulewe.”
Lokhu akubonisi nje kuphela izimpi ezazihlala zikhona phakathi kwabahlaseli ababenza amakoloni nabantu bomdabu kodwa futhi kubonisa ubutha obubulalayo nokubophelana uzungu phakathi kwalezi zizwana, okwakukhona ngisho nangaphambi kokuba kufike abamhlophe eNyakatho Melika. AbaseBrithani, ezimpini zabo namaFulentshi belwela amakoloni eNyakatho Melika, babenezizwana ezazibasekela, kuyilapho ezinye zazisekela amaFulentshi. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi yibaphi ababehlulwa, zonke izizwana ezazihilelekile zalahlekelwa kakhulu.
“Igebe Elibangelwa Ukungaqondani”
Omunye umbono owawenza abeLungu bahlasele yilo: “Lokho abaholi bamaNdiya ababengakuqondi, kwaze kwephuza kakhulu, kwakuyindlela abeLungu ababewabheka ngayo amaNdiya. Ayengebona abamhlophe noma amaKristu. Ayenonya—enobudlwangudlwangu futhi enjengezilwane—ngokombono wabaningi, ayeyingozi futhi efanelwe ibhizinisi lobugqili ngenxa yokuntula ubuntu.” Lesi simo sengqondo sokuziphakamisa sabangela imiphumela ebhubhisayo kulezi zizwana.
AmaMelika Omdabu ayengawuqondi umbono wabeLungu. Kwakunalokho umeluleki ongumNavajo uPhilmer Bluehouse akubiza ngokuthi “igebe elibangelwa ukungaqondani,” lapho exoxa ne-Phaphama! muva nje. Abomdabu babengayibukeli phansi impucuko yabo, kunalokho, babeyibheka njengehlukile, enezindinganiso ezihluke ngokuphelele. Ngokwesibonelo, ukudayisa umhlaba kwakuyinto ayengayazi nhlobo amaNdiya. Ingabe umoya namanzi kwakungaba okwakho bese ukudayisa? Khona-ke kungani udayisa umhlaba? Ukhona ukuze usetshenziswe uwonk’uwonke. Ngakho, amaNdiya ayengawubiyeli umhlaba.
Lapho kufika abaseBrithani, abaseSpain, namaFulentshi, kwaba nalokho okuye kwachazwa ngokuthi “ukuhlangana okuyinhlekelele kwamasiko amabili angafani.” Abantu bendabuko kwakungabantu okwase kungamakhulu eminyaka bekwazi ukuhlala ngokuthula nezwe nemvelo futhi ababekwazi ukuphila ngaphandle kokuphazamisa indawo ezungezile. Nokho, ngokushesha abamhlophe baqala ukubheka lezi zakhamuzi zomdabu njengezidalwa eziphansi, ezinonya—belukhohlwa ngokushesha unya ababanalo lapho bezinqoba! Ngo-1831, isazi-mlando esingumFulentshi u-Alexis de Tocqueville safingqa indlela eyayandile abamhlophe ababebheka ngayo amaNdiya: “UNkulunkulu akawadalelanga ukuba aphucuzeke; kufanele ukuba afe.”
Umbulali Oqothula Kunabo Bonke
Njengoba abafuduki abasha babethuthelekela entshonalanga benqamula eNyakatho Melika, ubudlova banda. Ngakho kungakhathaliseki ukuthi amaNdiya noma abeLungu abahlasela kuqala, zombili izinhlangothi zaba nesihluku. AmaNdiya ayesatshwa ngenxa yedumela lawo lokobula isikhumba sezinwele, umkhuba abanye abacabanga ukuthi awufundiswa abeLungu ababewanikeza imiklomelo yezikhumba zezinwele. Nokho, amaNdiya ayedlela ogageni—ngobuningi nangezikhali. Ezimweni eziningi lezi zizwana zazigcina ngokuwashiya amazwe okhokho bazo noma zife. Ngokuvamile kwakwenzeka kokubili—zazishiya amazwe akubo bese zibulawa noma zibulawe izifo nendlala.
Nokho, ukufa ezimpini kwakungeyona into eyayizibhubhisa kakhulu izizwana zomdabu. U-Ian K. Steele uyabhala: “Isikhali esasinamandla kunazo zonke ekuhlaselweni kweNyakatho Melika kwakungesona isibhamu, ihhashi, iBhayibheli, noma ‘impucuko’ yabeLungu. Kwakuyizifo eziwumshayabhuqe.” Ngokuphathelene nomphumela izifo zaseMpumalanga Nenkabazwe ezaba nawo emazweni aseMelika, uPatrica Nelson Limerick, uprofesa wezomlando, wabhala: “Lapho zidlulela eNtshonalanga Nenkabazwe, lezi zifo ezifanayo [okwase kungamakhulu eminyaka abeLungu benemithi yokuzigomela]—upokisi, isimungumungwane, imfuluwenza, umalaleveva, i-yellow fever, isifo sezintwala, isifo sofuba, futhi ngaphezu kwakho konke, ingxibongo—zagadla ngamandla. Amazinga okufa kwabantu emadolobhaneni ahlukahlukene enyuka afinyelela kumaphesenti angu-80 noma angu-90.”
URussell Freedman uchaza umqedazwe wengxibongo owagadla ngo-1837. “Wagadla kumaMandan kuqala, kwalandela amaHidatsa ngokushesha, ama-Assiniboin, ama-Arikara, amaSioux, namaBlackfoot.” AmaMandan acishe aphela nyá. Kusukela enanini labantu abangaba ngu-1600 ngo-1834, ancipha aba ngu-130 ngo-1837.
Kwenzekani Ngezivumelwano?
Kuze kube namuhla izimpunga zalezi zizwe zingalandisa ngezinsuku zezivumelwano uhulumeni wase-United States azisayina nokhokho bazo ekhulwini le-19. Kodwa yini ngempela eyafezwa yilezo zivumelwano? Ngokuvamile ukuthatha izwe elihle esikhundleni sezwe eliyincithakalo okwakungathandeki nokusekelwa uhulumeni.
Isibonelo sokuphathwa ngendelelo kwezizwana zomdabu indaba yezizwe zama-Iroquois (ukusuka empumalanga kuya entshonalanga, amaMohawk, ama-Oneida, ama-Onondaga, amaCayuga, namaSeneca) ngemva kokuba abaseBrithani behlulwe abenzi bamakoloni baseMelika empini yokufuna ukuzibusa, eyaphela ngo-1783. Ama-Iroquois ayesekele abaseBrithani, futhi ngokuka-Alvin Josephy, Jr., okuwukuphela kwembuyiselo ayithola kwakuwukushiywa dengwane nokwethukwa. AbaseBrithani, “bewashaya indiva [ama-Iroquois], banikela ngamazwe awo e-United States.” Unezela ukuthi ngisho nama-Iroquois ayesekele abenzi bamakoloni ababemelene nabaseBrithani “acindezelwa izinkampani ezihahayo ezithengisa umhlaba nabacubunguli nohulumeni waseMelika imbala.”
Lapho kuba nomhlangano wokwenza isivumelwano ngo-1784, uJames Duane, owayengummeleli weKomiti Yezindaba ZamaNdiya ye-Continental Congress, wayala amanxusa kahulumeni “ukuba aqede noma yikuphi ukuzithemba ama-Iroquois ayesenakho ngokuwaphatha ngamabomu njengabantu abaphansi.”
Ukusikisela kwakhe kokuziphakamisa kwasetshenziswa. Amanye ama-Iroquois athunjwa futhi “kwakhulunyiswana” nawo esatshiswa ngokubulawa ngokudutshulwa. Nakuba ayezibheka njengangahlulwanga empini, ama-Iroquois kwadingeka ukuba anikele lonke izwe lawo elisentshonalanga yeNew York nePennsylvania futhi amukele isiqeshana sendawo eNew York State.
Kwasetshenziswa amaqhinga afanayo ezizwaneni zomdabu eziningi. UJosephy uthi futhi amanxusa aseMelika asebenzisa “ukufumbathisa, izinsongo, utshwala, nokukhohlisa kwabameleli abangagunyaziwe ukuze athathe izwe lamaDelaware, amaWyandot, ama-Ottawa, amaChippewa [noma ama-Ojibwa], amaShawnee, nezinye izizwe zase-Ohio.” Akumangalisi ukuthi amaNdiya aqala ukungabethembi abamhlophe nezithembiso zabo eziwuwangala!
“Uhambo Olude” Nomzila Wezinyembezi
Lapho kubheduka iMpi Yombango YaseMelika (1861-65), yasusa amasosha ezweni lamaNavajo eNingizimu-ntshonalanga. AmaNavajo asebenzisa leli thuba ukuze ahlasele amadolobhana aseMelika naseMexico eRio Grande Valley esifundazweni saseNew Mexico. Uhulumeni wathumela uKhenela Kit Carson nebutho lakhe i-New Mexico Volunteers ukuba banqande amaNavajo futhi bawayise esiqeshini sezwe eliyincithakalo okuthiwa iBosque Redondo. UCarson wasebenzisa isimiso sokuqothula ukudla kwamaNavajo ukuze alambe abese ewaxosha endaweni enhle yaseCanyon de Chelly, enyakatho-mpumalanga ye-Arizona. Waze wacekela phansi ngisho nezihlahla zamapetshisi ezingaphezu kuka-5000.
UCarson wahlanganisa ndawonye abantu abangaba ngu-8000 futhi wabaphoqelela ukuba bathathe “Uhambo Olude” lwamakhilomitha angaba ngu-500 lokuya ekamu leziboshwa laseBosque Redondo eFort Sumner, eNew Mexico. Umbiko othile uthi: “Kwakubanda kushubisa umnkantsha, futhi iningi lalaba badingiswa elalingagqokile ngokwanele futhi lingondlekile kahle, lafela endleleni.” Izimo kulesi siqeshana sezwe zazizimbi kakhulu. AmaNavajo kwakudingeka ambe imigodi ukuze athole izindawo zokukhosela. Ngo-1868, ngemva kokuqaphela iphutha lawo elikhulu, uhulumeni wanikeza amaNavajo amahektare ayizigidi ezingu-1,4 ezwe lokhokho bawo e-Arizona naseNew Mexico. Aphindela emuva, kodwa yeka indlela ayejeziswe ngayo!
Phakathi kuka-1820 no-1845, amashumi ezinkulungwane zamaChoctaw, amaCherokee, amaChickasaw, amaCreek, namaSeminole axoshwa emazweni awo eNingizimu-mpumalanga futhi aphoqelelwa ukuba aye ngasentshonalanga, ngalé koMfula iMississippi, endaweni manje okuthiwa i-Oklahoma, amanye aya ezindaweni ezikude kakhulu. Amaningi afa ngenxa yezimo ezimbi zasebusika. Lolu hambo lokuphoqelelwa oluya entshonalanga lwaziwa ngokuthi uMzila Wezinyembezi.
Ukungabi nabulungisa okwenziwa kumaMelika Omdabu kuqinisekiswa futhi amazwi kajenene waseMelika uGeorge Crook, owayezingele amaSioux namaCheyenne enyakatho. Wathi: “Kuyivelakancane ukuba luzwakale uhlangothi lwendaba lwamaNdiya. . . . Khona-ke lapho kuqubuka ukuvukela [kwamaNdiya] ukunakekela komphakathi kugxiliswa emaNdiyeni, ubugebengu nonya lwawo yikhona kuphela okulahlwayo, kuyilapho abantu abenza ukungabi nabulungisa okwawashukumisela kuleyo nkambo bengasolwa nakancane . . . Akekho olazi kangcono leli qiniso ngaphandle kweNdiya, ngakho-ke alinakusolwa ngokungaboni bulungisa kuhulumeni olijezisayo kuphela, kuyilapho uvumela abamhlophe ukuba baliphange ngokuthanda kwabo.”—I-Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee.
Sinjani isimo samaMelika Omdabu namuhla ngemva kweminyaka engaphezu kweyikhulu yokubuswa abeLungu? Ingabe asengozini yokunyamalala ngenxa yokuhlangana nezinye izinhlanga? Yiliphi ithemba analo ngesikhathi esizayo? Isihloko esilandelayo sizocabangela lemibuzo kanye neminye.
[Ibhokisi ekhasini 9]
Ukuphila Okunzima Kwabesifazane
Nakuba abesilisa babengabazingeli namaqhawe ezizwaneni eziningi, abesifazane babenemisebenzi eminingi, kuhlanganise nokukhulisa abantwana, ukutshala nokuvuna okusanhlamvu, nokukugaya kube ufulawa. UColin Taylor uyachaza: “Indima eyinhloko yabesifazane basemaThafeni . . . kwakuwukunakekela umkhaya ofudumele, ukuzala abantwana nokupheka ukudla. Emiphakathini elimayo babelima namasimu, . . . kuyilapho ezizwaneni zasentshonalanga ezingahlali ndawonye ezizingela izinyathi, babesiza ekuhlinzeni lesi silwane, balethe inyama ekamu bese belungisa inyama nezikhumba ukuze bakusebenzise esikhathini esizayo.”—I-Plains Indians.
Enye incwadi ithi ngokuqondene nama-Apache: “Umsebenzi wokulima kwakungowabesifazane futhi wawungasehlisi nakancane isithunzi. Amadoda ayesiza, kodwa abesifazane babekubheka ngokungathi sína ukulima kunabesilisa. . . . Njalo abesifazane babekwazi ukugcina imicikilisho yokulima. . . . Abesifazane abaningi babethandaza lapho benisela amasimu ngenkasa.”—I-Native Americans—An Illustrated History.
Futhi abesifazane babakha izindlu zesikhashana ezibizwa ngokuthi ama-tepee, ngokuvamile ezazihlala iminyaka engaba mibili. Babezakha futhi bazidilize lapho kudingeka ukuba isizwana sithuthe. Ngokungangabazeki, abesifazane babephila kanzima. Kodwa kwakunjalo nangabesilisa ababengabanakekeli besizwana. Abesifazane babehlonishwa futhi benamalungelo amaningi. Kwezinye izizwana, njengamaHopi, ngisho nanamuhla impahla inakekelwa abesifazane.
[Ibhokisi/Isithombe ekhasini 10]
Isilwane Esashintsha Ukuphila Kwawo
AbeLungu baletha isilwane esithile eNyakatho Melika esashintsha indlela yokuphila yezizwana eziningi—ihhashi. Ekhulwini le-17, abaseSpain baba abokuqala ukuletha amahhashi kulelizwekazi. AboMdabu baseMelika baba ompetha ekugibeleni ihhashi ngaphandle kwesihlalo, njengoba abeLungu ababehlasela basheshe bakubona lokho. Ngamahhashi, abomdabu babekwazi ukuzingela inyathi kalula. Futhi izizwana ezingahlali ndawonye zazikwazi kangcono ukuhlasela izizwana ezingomakhelwane bazo ezazizinzile futhi ngaleyo ndlela ziphange izimpahla, abesifazane, nezigqila.
[Ibalazwe/Isithombe ekhasini 7]
(Ukuze ubone ukuthi indaba ihlelwe kanjani, bheka encwadini)
Izindawo zangekhulu le-17 zezinye izizwana eNyakatho Melika
[Isithombe ekhasini 1]
Kutenai
Spokan
Nez Perce
Shoshone
Klamath
Northern Paiute
Miwok
Yokuts
Serrano
Mohave
Papago
Blackfoot
Flathead
Crow
Ute
Hopi
Navajo
Jicarilla
Apache
Mescalero
Lipan
Plains Cree
Assiniboin
Hidatsa
Mandan
Arikara
Teton
Cheyenne
Sioux
Yankton
Pawnee
Arapaho
Oto
Kansa
Kiowa
Comanche
Wichita
Tonkawa
Atakapa
Yanktonai
Santee
Iowa
Missouri
Osage
Quapaw
Caddo
Choctaw
Ojibwa
Sauk
Fox
Kickapoo
Miami
Illinois
Chickasaw
Alabama
Ottawa
Potawatomi
Erie
Shawnee
Cherokee
Catawba
Creek
Timucua
Algonquian
Huron
Iroquois
Susquehanna
Delaware
Powhatan
Tuscarora
Micmac
Malecite
Abnaki
Sokoki
Massachuset
Wampanoag
Narragansett
Mohegan
Montauk
[Imithombo]
Indian: Artwork based on photograph by Edward S. Curtis; North America: Mountain High Maps® Copyright © 1995 Digital Wisdom, Inc.
[Izithombe ekhasini 8]
Izinto zobuciko eziyigugu nezalukiwe zamaNavajo
[Isithombe ekhasini 11]
ECanyon de Chelly, lapho kwaqala khona “Uhambo Olude”