Oiri—Tinoiwana Sei?

“CHIEDZA ngachivepo.” MuUnited States muzana remakore rechi19, mumwe mwenje waidiwa kuti utsive mwenje waiva usina kujeka waigadzirwa norumwe rudzi rwemafuta, oiri yewhale, nezvimwewo zvinhu. Dambudziko racho raizogadziriswa sei? Oiri! Yaizowanikwepi?

Muna 1859, Edwin L. Drake, kondakita wechitima akanga ava pamudyandigere, achishandisa injini youtsi hwemvura yekare, akachera tsime raive rakadzika mamita 22 kuti asvike paoiri inenge ichakavhengana nezvimwewo yokutanga yakawanikwa pedyo neTitusville, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Uku ndiko kwakava kutanga kwenguva yeoiri. Oiri sezvayakawanikwa munzvimbo zhinji dzenyika, yakakonzera kuchinja kukuru mune zvoupfumi nezvematongerwo enyika. Yakaratidza kuti yaipa chiedza chokuvheneka chakanaka zvikuru icho nyika yakanga yakamirira kwazvo.

Nokukurumidza, chipatapata chokutenga nzvimbo nokuchera matsime chakava basa guru munzvimbo dzainzi ndidzo dzeoiri dzeUnited States. Mumakore iwayo zvakanga zvakakurumbira kunzwa nezvevanhu vakangopfuma kamwe kamwe uye nezvevamwe vakazorasikirwa nezvose zvavaiva nazvo. Sezvineiwo, Edwin Drake, murume akachera tsime rokutanga muPennysylvania, ndiye mumwe wevakabhuroka.

Pasinei nokusimukira kwayo kamwe kamwe, indasitiri yeoiri muPennsylvania nokukurumidza yakasangana nokudzikira kwayo kwokutanga. Oiri yakadzika kubva paUS$20 [Z$16 480] pamarita anenge 159 kusvika paUS10c [Z$82,40]! Kuwandisa kwayo uye zvaifungidzirwa zvakaita kuti mutengo wayo udzike, uye mamwe matsime akaoma nokukurumidza. Chiyeuchidzo chaicho chenguva idzodzo iPithole City, Pennsylvania, iro rave taundi rangova matongo. Rakavakwa, rikabudirira, uye rakatamiwa—munguva inongoti pfuurei gore nehafu zvishomanana. Kuchinja-chinja ikoko kwaizova chinhu chinokosha chenhoroondo yeoiri.

Muna 1870, John D. Rockefeller neshamwari shomanana vakabatana kuti vaumbe Standard Oil Company. Kambani iyi ndiyo bedzi yaitengesa parafini kuzosvikira kwamukawo vamwe, kunyanya muindasitiri yeoiri yeRussia. Mumwe aikwikwidza aiva Marcus Samuel, muvambi weinonzi Royal Dutch/Shell Group nhasi. Uyezve, nemhaka youchenjeri hwevakomana vekwaNobel,a bhizimisi guru reoiri rakatangwa muRussia nemafuta aibviswa muminda yeBaku.

Ikoko ndiko kwaiva kutanga kwenhoroondo yokutevedzana kwemabhizimisi eoiri. Kubva ipapo masangano nemibatanidzwa zvakaumbwa kuitira kuti pasava nokusagadzikana kwomutengo kunokonzerwa nokuwanda kwayo sezvakanga zvamboitika. Rimwe remasangano aya iOrganization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), iro rine nhengo 11 pamwe chete dziri varidzi vematsime anozikanwa eoiri ichakasangana nezvimwewo.—Ona bhokisi riri papeji 7.

Kune Oiri Yakawanda sei, uye Iripi?

Pakuguma kwezana remakore rechi19, kushandiswa kwakapararira kwemagetsi kunogona kudai kwakareva kubhuroka kwemabhizimisi eoiri. Zvisinei, kugadzirwa kwakaitwa chimwe chinhu chikuru kwakachinja mamiriro ezvinhu zvakakura kwazvo—injini, inonyanya kushandiswa zvikuru pamotokari. Peturu, iyo inogadzirwa nepetroleum, zvino yakanga yava kukosha nokuda kwemotokari, idzo dzakanga dzatovako kare munyika dzakawanda dzakasimukira pakasvika ma1920. Saka oiri yakawanda yakanga yava kudiwa kuti nyika yose iwane chokufambisa, asi yaizowanikwepi?

Nokufamba kwemakore, ukuru hweoiri pamusika wenyika yose hwakasimbiswa nokuwanikwa kweminda yeoiri mitsva kuri kuramba kuchiitika munzvimbo dzakasiyana-siyana dzenyika—inenge 50 000! Asi kana totaura nezveoiri ichawanikwa, pfungwa inokosha ndeyokuti, haisi nhamba yeminda yacho yakawanikwa, asi ukuru hweminda yacho. Yakakura sei?

Minda yeoiri ine marita anenge mabhiriyoni 795 kana kupfuura anogona kucherwa ndiyo mikuru kupfuura yose, yozoteverwa neine mamiriyoni 795 kusvika mabhiriyoni 795 emarita. Kunyange zvazvo nyika dzinenge 70 dzakanyorwa pa“U.S. Geological Survey World Petroleum Assessment 2000” kuti dzine matsime eoiri, shomanana dzacho bedzi ndidzo dzine minda mikuru yeoiri. (Ona bhokisi riri papeji 7.) Nhamba huru kune dzose yeminda yeoiri mikuru pane yose yakaungana munharaunda yakaorera yeArabia neIran, iyo iri nharaunda iri muPersian Gulf nemakapoteredza.

Kutsvaka oiri itsva hakuna kumbomira. Asi kwakatosimbiswa nounyanzvi hwokugadzira zvinhu huripo zvino. Panguva ino nharaunda yeCaspian Sea, iyo inoumbwa nenyika dzeAzerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, neUzbekistan, dzakafarirwa zvikuru nevagadziri veoiri. Maererano neU.S. Energy Information Administration, nharaunda iyi inogona kubudisa oiri yakawanda negasi rinobva pasi. Dzimwe nzira dzokutumira nadzo oiri inotengeswa dzakadai seAfghanistan, dziri kuongororwa. Dzimwe dzinogona kuzoshandiswa iMiddle East, Greenland, uye dzimwe nzvimbo dzeAfrica. Kuchinjwa kwemahydrocarbon kuti abudise simba nezvimwe zvinhu zvokushandisa muupenyu hwezuva nezuva ndeimwewo nhau yakazvimirira.

Oiri Inobudiswa Sei?

Nyanzvi dzematombo nevanoongorora vanotsvaka pangave paine oiri ichakavhengana nezvimwewo pasi pevhu. Pashure pokunyatsoyera nokutora ivhu, vanochera kuti vave nechokwadi chokuti pane oiri zvechokwadi. Kare, kungotanga nokuchera oiri zvinobudirira kwaigona kuguma nokudirwa madhaka neoiri, zvichiguma nokurasikirwa neinotanga kubuda uye paive nengozi yokuputika. Zvisinei, pachishandiswa zvokuyeresa nemavharufu akagadzirirwa izvi, michina yokucheresa yanhasi inoita kuti izvi zvisaitika. Kuchera kuduku uye kwakadzika kunobvirawo nhasi.

Pakupedzisira, simba rinoita kuti oiri negasi zvibude rinodzika, uye rinofanira kuchengetedzwa nokupinza mvura, makemikari, carbon dioxide, kana mamwe magasi akadai senitrogen. Zvichienderana nenharaunda yacho, oiri inogona kukora zvakasiya-siyana. Kazhinji, oiri nhete ndiyo inowanzodiwa, nokuti iri nyore kuwana nokuichenesa.

Sezvakatsanangurwa neAmerican Petroleum Institute, unyanzvi hwokugadzira zvinhu mazuvano hunosanganisira kuchera, uko kunoitwa vanhu vari nechepasi, izvo zvinoderedza uwandu hwematsime anofanira kucherwa. Kuchera mugungwa uko kwakatanga muna 1947 muGulf of Mexico, kwakawedzera oiri zvikuru. Zvechokwadi, nzira inenge yashandiswa kuiwana ine simba pamutengo wechinozobuda pakupedzisira.b

Oiri Inotakurwa Sei?

Muna 1863 muPennsylvania, mapaipi emiti matete akagadzirwa kuti atakure oiri, sezvo aiva akachipa uye asinganetsi kushandisa pamadhiramu emiti aipinda magaroni 42 aitakurwa nengoro dzemabhiza.c Nhasi hakusisina urongwa hwemapaipi emiti, kwatova nezvimwewo. Maererano neAssociation of Oil Pipe Lines, United States yoga ine unzanzanza hwemapaipi epetroleum hunosvika makiromita 300 000!

Mapaipi akadaro, kazhinji anogadzirwa nesimbi, haangotakuri oiri ichakavhengana nezvimwewo bedzi kuti inocheneswa asiwo zvinobuda muoiri pakupedzisira kuti zviende kune vanozviparadzira. Unyanzvi hwemazuva ano hwokugadzira zvinhu hwemapaipi hunobvumira kuti pave nemichina inongoshanda yoga ichiona kana oiri ichifamba uye pamwero unodiwa. Michina younyanzvi inoshandiswa kuongorora mazana emakiromita emapaipi yakagadzirwa. Asi chingangoonekwa nomutengiwo zvake wezvinobuda pakupedzisira, zvimwe chiratidzo chokuti paipi yepetroleum iri pasi pevhu uye nyevero yokuti nzvimbo yacho haibvumirwi kuchera.

Zvisinei, kunyange zvazvo paipi ichikosha haisi nzira inoshanda yokutakura nayo oiri yakawanda kuenda mhiri kwemakungwa. Asi vacheri veoiri vekare vakawana mhinduro yaizvozvo zvekare—matangi eoiri makuru kwazvo. Idzi ingarava dzakatogadzirirwa izvozvo dzakareba kusvika mamita 400. Matangi eoiri ndiwo ngarava huru pane dzose dzinofamba mumakungwa uye anogona kutakura miriyoni imwe kana kupfuura yemadhiramu emiti anopinda magaroni 42 eoiri. Sezvineiwo, nokukura ikoko kwaakaita, matangi ari munjodzi isati yakurirwa, seizvo bhokisi rinoti “Nezvokudeuka Kweoiri” rinoratidza. Chitima nemotokari dzinofamba munjanji ndedzimwewo nzira dzakakurumbira dzokutakura nadzo oiri yakawanda. Kunyange zvakadaro, murwendo rweoiri, kutakurwa inongova hafu yenhau yacho.

Murazvo muduku unenge uchibuda mupaipi refu, kana kuti moto—iyo inoshanda sevharufu yokudzivirira ngozi—chiratidzo chakanaka chokuti wakatarisana nepanocheneswa oiri. Zvinoitika ndezvokuti pazvivako zvikuru zvokuchenesa oiri izvi, oiri ichakasangana nezvimwewo inopiswa yoendeswa muchivako chirefu chinokwira mudenga, umo inoparadzaniswa ichibuda yakasiyana-siyana. Zvinobudamo izvi zvinobvira pane zvakareruka—magasi, akadai sebutane—kusvika pazvinorema zvikuru, izvo zvinozoshandiswa seoiri yokuderedza kupera kwezvakagadziriswa michina zvinoshanda zvichikwizirana pamwe nezvimwewo. (Ona mapeji 8-9.) Asi izvi zvinongosiya pane mubvunzo, Oiri inobatsira hayo asi ine zvayakaipira here?

[Mashoko Omuzasi]

[Bhokisi/Mufananidzo uri papeji 5]

MADHIRAMU EMITI KANA KUTI MATANI?

Makambani eoiri okutanga ePennsylvania aitakura oiri nemadhiramu emiti ewaini anopinda magaroni 48. Pakupedzisira magaroni 42 bedzi eoiri aiiswa kuitira kuti isadeuka pakutakura. Dhiramu romuti (magaroni 42) richiri kushandiswa nanhasi pakutengeswa kweoiri.

Kubva pakutanga, oiri yeEurope yaitakurwa nomugungwa uye yaiwanzoyerwa nouremu, mumatani, sezviri kuitwa nhasi.

[Kwazvakatorwa]

Kwakabva mashoko: American Petroleum Institute

[Bhokisi riri papeji 6]

PETROLEUM YAKATANGA SEI?

Mafungiro ave aine masayendisiti akawanda kubva kuma1870 ndeokuti yakabva muzvinhu zvipenyu. “Zvinotaurwa kuti, zvinhu zvipenyu zvakafukidzwa nemavhu zvinoora zvichiva oiri negasi zvinobva pasi pashure penguva yakareba uye kuti petroleum iyi inobva yazara muvhu riri pamusoro pe[Pasi].” Izvi zvinobva zvabudisa petroleum, iyo ine zvinhu zvikuru zvinonzi mahydrocarbon—kureva hydrogen necarbon. Zvisinei, kubva muma1970 pfungwa iyi dzimwe nguva yairambwa nemamwe masayendisiti.

Mumagazini yaAugust 20, 2002 yeProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, nyaya inoti “Kutanga Kwemahydrocarbon Nokutanga Kwepetroleum” yakabudiswa. Vanyori vacho vanoti mavambo epetroleum anofanira kunge ari pakadzika “mumwoyo wePasi chaiwo” uye kwete pamusoro pasina kudzika sezvinofungwa nevakawanda.

Nyanzvi yefizikisi purofesa Thomas Gold akapa pfungwa dzine mibvunzo uye anotsanangura zvikonzero zvakazara mubhuku rake rinonzi The Deep Hot Biosphere—The Myth of Fossil Fuels. Anonyora kuti: “Pfungwa yokuti mahydrocarbon anobva pazvinhu zvipenyu yaifarirwa kwazvo muUnited States nomurutivi rukuru rweEurope zvokuti zvakamisa zvachose kutsvakurudza maonero akapesana neaya. Izvi handizvo zvakaitika munyika dzeyaichimbova Soviet Union.” Izvi zvakadaro “zvimwe nokuti nyanzvi yekemesitiri inoremekedzwa yokuRussia Mendeleyev akanga asina kutsigira pfungwa yokuti oiri yakabva pazvinhu zvipenyu. Zvikonzero zvaakapa zvakatowedzera kusimba nhasi, tichifunga nezvemashoko akawedzera zvikuru atave nawo.” Maonero acho asingabatanidzi zvinhu zvipenyu ndeokuti kudii?

Gold anoti: “Pfungwa isingabatanidzi zvinhu zvipenyu inoti mahydrocarbon akanga ari rutivi rwezvimwe zvakaumba pasi redu, nokuungana kwezvinhu zvishoma nezvishoma, anenge makore mabhiriyoni 4,5 akapfuura.” Maererano nepfungwa iyi, zvinhu zvinoumba petroleum zvave zviripo pasi kubvira pakuvapo kwenyika.d

[Mashoko Omuzasi]

[Bhokisi/Mifananidzo iri papeji 10, 11]

NEZVOKUDEUKA KWEOIRI

◼ Matangi anotakura oiri akadeura matani 5 322 000 pakati pa1970 na2000

◼ Kudeuka kweoiri kukuru kwazvo kwakaitika muna 1979 apo Atlantic Empress yakabonderana neAegean Captain muCaribbean, zvichiguma nokudeuka kwematani 287 000 eoiri

◼ Exxon Valdez ndiyo yakanga iri yechi34 pakudeuka kukuru kwematangi eoiri

◼ Kunyange zvazvo kudeura oiri kwematangi kuzhinji kuchiitika pakutakura, kuburutsa uye kuchengeta, kudeuka kukuru kwazvo kunoitika pakubonderana nepakubuda mumvura

◼ Kumwe kudeuka kukuru kweoiri kwakakonzerwa nezvimwe zvinhu kunze kwematangi:

● Kuputika pakutsvaka tsime Ixtoc I muna 1979, muGulf of Mexico. Uwandu hwakadeuka: Marita 500 000 000

● Kuputika kwechikuva mutsime romuPersian Gulf muna 1983. Uwandu hwakadeuka: Marita 300 000 000

● Kurasa nemaune muna 1991, muPersian Gulf. Uwandu hwakadeuka: Marita 900 000 000

[Mifananidzo]

Tangi reoiri “Erika” rinonyura pedyo nePenmarch Point, France, December 13, 1999

[Kwazvakatorwa]

Kwakabva mashoko: International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited, “Oil Spill Intelligence Report,” “The Encarta Encyclopedia”

© La Marine Nationale, France

[Mifananidzo iri papeji 8, 9]

(Kana uchida mashoko azere, ona bhuku racho)

KUGADZIRWA KWEOIRI—KUTSANANGURA ZVIRI NYORE

1—KUONGORORA

SATELLITE

Global Positioning System inopa zviratidzo zvakarurama zvinoshandiswa pakuongorora

GEOPHONES

VIBRATOR TRUCK

HYDROPHONES

SEISMIC VESSEL

Kuongorora kudengenyeka kwepasi, ndeimwe nzira inoshandiswa, inorekodha zviri kuitika pasi pevhu zvemasaisai okutinhira

2—KUBUDISA

MATSIME EPANYIKA

CHIKUVA CHEPAMHENDEREKEDZO

TSIME REPASI PEMVURA

Nzira dzokubudisa nadzo dzinosanganisira kushandisa matsime eoiri epanyika yakaoma, epedyo nemahombekombe, uye epasi pemvura. Kuti simba rokutubuka rirambe riripo, magasi kana kuti mvura ingashandiswa

[Mufananidzo]

TSIME REOIRI RIRI PASI PEMVURA

Masabhumarini anotekenywa munhu ari kure anoshandiswa kuvaka zvivako zvinobudisa oiri pasi pegungwa

[Mufananidzo]

KUCHERA KUNOTEVEDZA PASI

Michina inotekenywa nainjiniya ari kure inotenderedza chokucheresa, uye michina inoratidza pane oiri

3—KUTAKURA

MAPAIPI

TANGI

Mapaipi ari pamusoro pevhu, pasi pevhu, uye pasi pegungwa anofambisa oiri. Dzimwe nzira dzokutakura nadzo dzinosanganisira matangi, ngarava, nezvitima

4—KUCHENESA

CHOTO

Oiri ichakasangana nezvimwewo inopiswa, yopora, uye yoparadzana kuva zvikamu zvinogona kushandiswa kugadzira zvinhu zvinoshandisika

DISTILLATION TOWER

Apo oiri ichakasangana nezvimwewo yakasvibirira, inonamira inopiswa muchoto, mahydrocarbon anochinja kuva magasi. Magasi aya anopora oita mvura pamwero wokupisa wakasiyana-siyana. Nokudaro oiri inoparadzaniswa ichibudisa zvakasiyana-siyana

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CATALYTIC CRACKER

Mahydrocarbon anopiswa noutsi hwemvura osanganiswa noupfu hwealumina-silica gel inokurumidzisa kusangana kwemakemikari. Izvi zvinotsemura, kana kuti kupaza, mahydrocarbon kuva zvidimbu zviduku zvinokosha zvikuru

Upfu hwekemikari hunosangana nehydrocarbon muchiutsi chemvura

↓ ↓ ↓

ETHANOL MAPURASITIKI GASOLINE ADDITIVES

[Kwazvakatorwa]

Photo Courtesy of Phillips Petroleum Company

[Girafu riri papeji 7]

(Kana uchida mashoko azere, ona bhuku racho)

MATSIME MAKURU EOIRI

Uwandu hwose huri mumabhiriyoni emadhiramu emiti. Izvi hazvibatanidzi matura asati azivikanwa

▪ Nhengo yeOPEC

• Nyika ine minda yeoiri inopfuura marita 795 000 000 000

Akagadzirwa ose

◆ Matura

▪ • ◆ 332.7 SAUDI ARABIA

• ◆ 216.5 UNITED STATES

• ◆ 192.6 RUSSIA

▪ • ◆ 135.9 IRAN

▪ • ◆ 130.6 VENEZUELA

▪ • ◆ 125.1 KUWAIT

▪ • ◆ 122.8 IRAQ

▪ • ◆ 113.3 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

• ◆ 70.9 MEXICO

• ◆ 42.9 CHINA

▪ • ◆ 41.9 LIBYA

▪ ◆ 33.4 NIGERIA

◆ 21.2 CANADA

▪ ◆ 21.0 INDONESIA

◆ 20.5 KAZAKHSTAN

▪ • ◆ 18.3 ALGERIA

◆ 17.6 NORWAY

◆ 16.9 UNITED KINGDOM

[Mifananidzo iri papeji 4]

Tsime reoiri ichakasangana nezvimwewo rokutanga, Titusville, Pennsylvania, 1859

Oiri iri kubuda mutsime riri muTexas

[Kwazvakatorwa]

Vakomana vekwaBrown

[Mufananidzo uri papeji 5]

Munda weoiri wekare, Beaumont, Texas

[Mufananidzo uri papeji 5]

Ngoro yemabhiza iri kutakura madhiramu emiti

[Mufananidzo uri papeji 10]

Munda weoiri unonganduma muKuwait

[Vakatipa Mufananidzo uri papeji 5]

Mifananidzo yose: Vakomana vekwaBrown