Ukuqalisa Nokuwohloka Kwenkqubo Yorhwebo Lwehlabathi

Icandelo 3—Inkqubo Yezorhwebo Ebawayo Izibalula Ubunto Bayo

NJENGOKO kwakuqalisa inkulungwane ye-16, inkqubo yorhwebo yaseYurophu yayilawulwa kwelasemntla luManyano LweHansa, umanyano lwabarhwebi abahlala kwiidolophu ezikuMntla Jamani; kwelasentshona yayilawulwa yiNgilani neNetherlands; yaye kwelasemzantsi yayilawulwa yiVenice.

Kangangeenkulungwane, iVenice yalithabathela kuyo lonke urhwebo ngezinongo. Izivumelwano ezenziwa nama-Arabhu, yaye kamva namaTheki kaOttoman, zaphumelela ukuthintela abo babesenokufuna ukukhuphisana nayo ukuvula iindlela zorhwebo eziya ngaseMpuma. Ukuba abanye babeza kucel’ umngeni obu buhlohlesakhe, babemele bafumane iindlela ezintsha kwiMpuma Ekude. Iphulo lokufuna ezi ndlela laqalisa. Omnye umphumo weli phulo waba kukufunyanwa nokuthinjwa kwamazwe aseMerika.

Ebudeni beminyaka yee-1490 upopu wanika iPortugal neSpeyin imvume yokuqhubeka nephulo lokoyisa elo hlabathi lalingaziwa ngelo xesha. Kodwa yayingezonkolelo zonqulo kuphela ezashukumisa la mazwe mabini amaKatolika. Unjingalwazi Shepard Clough uthi: “Bakuba nje beqinisekisile ngamalungelo abo kule mimandla yehlabathi ababesandul’ ukuyifumana, abo babenebango bagxalathelana ukuya kuzirhwaphilizela naziphi na iingenelo zoqoqosho ababenokuzizuza kule mimandla bayifumeneyo.” Wongezelela oku: “Phantse indlela aba vulindlela ababenyeke ukutyeba ngokukhawuleza ngayo yayibonakalisa umnqweno ongengowemvelo. Le yayiyimbonakaliso ebangel’ umdla yeentshukumisa zoku kuhlolwa komhlaba neengcamango ezazesamele kumazwe aseNtshona.” Ukunxanelwa igolide nokufuna amaguquka kwanyanzelisa iinkokeli zaseSpeyin ekubeni ziphange iHlabathi Elitsha.

Ngelo xesha, neNetherlands yayikhula isiba ligunya elibalaseleyo kwezorhwebo, ekwakungekho nalinye kwamanye amagongqongqo ezorhwebo elalinokukhuphisana nalo. Enyanisweni, ebudeni benkulungwane ye-17, kwakucacile ukuba yiNgilani kuphela eyayomelele ngokwaneleyo ukuba icele umngeni kwiNetherlands. Ukhuphiswano ngezoqoqosho lwathabath’ unyawo. Kwiminyaka nje engama-30, ngowe-1618, amaNgesi ayewandise ngokuphindwe kabini umkhosi wawo weenqanawa; phakathi kwinkulungwane ye-17, umkhosi weenqanawa zorhwebo waseNetherlands wawuwuphinda kane umkhosi waseItali, wasePortugal nowaseSpeyin idityanisiwe.

Ngaloo ndlela iziko lezorhwebo laseYurophu lafuduka ukusuka kwiMeditera ukuya kunxweme lweAtlantiki. Iyibiza ngokuthi “yinguqulelo kwezorhwebo” nangokuthi “yenye yeenguqulelo ezinkulu zokufuduswa kweziko lize lisiwe kwenye indawo embalini,” into kaClough ithi oku kwabangela “ukuzinza kwezoqoqosho okwabangela iinkokeli zobupolitika nezenkcubeko kwiNtshona Yurophu zaphumelela kwimpucuko yaseNtshona.”

Ubukhosi Obakhelwe Kokungakumbi Kuneswekile Nezinongo

Ngowe-1602 iNetherlands yamanyanisa iinkampani eziliqela ezirhwebayo ezaziphantsi kolwalathiso lwabarhwebi bakhona yaza yabumba iDutch East India Company. Kumashumi eminyaka eyalandelayo, ngaphandle kokuphumelela ngomlinganiselo othile kwezorhwebo eJapan naseJava, yawagxotha amaPhuthukezi kwezo ndawo ngoku kuthiwa yiNtshona Malaysia, iSri Lanka neMoluccas (iziQithi Zezinongo). Lo kaClough uthi, “NjengamaPhuthukezi nabantu baseSpeyin, [amaDatshi] ayencwase ukuba ibe ngawo kuphela afumana iingenelo ngokurhweba namazwe aseMpuma.” Ibe oko akumangalisi! Urhwebo lwalunengeniso kangangokuba ngenkulungwane ye-17, iNetherlands yaba lelona lizwe linabemi abafumileyo kwiNtshona Yurophu. IAmsterdam yaba liziko lezimali nelezorhwebo lamazwe aseNtshona.​—⁠Bona ibhokisi ekwiphepha 32.

IDenmark neFransi zaseka imibutho efanayo. Kodwa owokuqala nongokuphela kwawo owathi ekugqibeleni waba neyona mpembelelo inkulu, wasekwa ngowe-1600, iEnglish East India Company. Wawagxotha amaFrentshi namaPhuthukezi eIndiya. Kamva amaNgesi aba ngoomakhonya kwezorhwebo naseTshayina.

Kwangaxeshanye, kwiSiqingatha Somhlaba sangaseNtshona, iDutch West India Company yayiqhuba ishishini leswekile, lecuba neloboya. Yaye amaNgesi, emva kokuseka iHudson’s Bay Company eKhanada ngowe-1670, ayexakekile ezama ukufumana indlela enqumla ngasemntla-ntshona eya kwiPasifiki njengoko ayethengiselana namazwe amelene neHudson Bay.

Intatheli uPeter Newman ithi ukruthakruthwano olwaluphakathi kweHudson’s Bay Company nenye inkampani eyayisukuzana nayo, iNorth West Company, “yayilukhuphiswano lwezoshishino ngeemarike noboya, kodwa ngokukhawuleza lwaguquka lwaba kukulwela igunya nomhlaba. . . . Amacala omabini ayezinzisa ukungavisisani kwawo ngegazi.” Awona maxhoba okwenene oku yaba ngamaIndiya ezi nkampani zombini ezazithengiselana nawo. Uthi, “Kwishishini loboya kwakuhlawulwa ngotywala,” esongezelela ngokuthi oku “kuhlawulwa ngotywala kwazonakalisa iintsapho kwaza kwayiphelisa impucuko yaseIndiya.”a

Ngoko kwavela iindidi ezimbini ezinamandla nezinempembelelo zobukhosi, ezazakhelwe kokungaphezu kweswekile nezinongo​—⁠kwanasegazini! Inkqubo yezorhwebo ebawayo yayizibalula ubunto bayo. Kunjengokuba iThe Columbia History of the World isithi: “AmaDatshi namaNgesi ayetyhutyha iilwandle zehlabathi njengabameli bemicimbi yezorhwebo . . . Eyona nto yayishukumisa ezi nkampani yayiyinzuzo.”​—⁠Akekeliswe sithi.

Ukuzuza Ingeniso Ngokuxhaphaza Abanye

Ukususela ngenkulungwane ye-16 kuse kweye-18, inkqubo yoqoqosho eyayisaziwa ngokuba yimercantilism yaba nempembelelo enkulu kwindlela ababecinga ngayo abemi baseYurophu. IThe New Encyclopædia Britannica iyacacisa: “[Imercantilism] yema ngelithi ukufunjwa kobutyebi, ngokukodwa ubutyebi begolide, kwakubaluleke gqitha elizweni. . . . Inkqubo yoshishino eyayilawulwa yingcamango yobulumko yemercantilism yayilula gqitha: kukhuthazwa ukuthengiswa kwezinto kumazwe angaphandle, ukuthenga izinto kwamanye amazwe akukhuthazwa, yaye kuqokelelwa yonke ingeniso yegolide efumaneke ngoko kuthunyelwa kwezinto kumazwe angaphandle.”

Ukusetyenziswa kwale nkqubo kwakudla ngokuphumela kwizenzo ezinzulu zokungabikho kokusesikweni. Amazwe angamathanga ayexhatshazwa njengoko iitoni zegolide zazithinjwa ukuze zizuzwe lilizwe elikhulu. Ngamanye amazwi, le nkqubo yemercantilism yabonakalisa isimo sengqondo sokuzingca nesokubawa esakhuthazwa yinkqubo yezorhwebo kwasekuqaleni kwayo, umoya osekhoyo nangoku.

Bakho abantu ababeyigxeka le nkqubo yemercantilism, ibe omnye owayebalasele yindoda yaseSkotlani egama linguAdam Smith. Isithandi sobulumko esidumileyo kwezentlalo nengcali ngezoqoqosho, ngowe-1776 lo kaSmith wapapasha ingxelo yohlolisiso lwezoqoqosho eyayinomxholo othi An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Nangona wayengafuni nokuyibona inkqubo yemercantilism, lo kaSmith akazange akugxeke ukufuna ingeniso okushukunyiswa zizilangazelelo zobuqu. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, wema ngelithi abantu bakhokelwa “sisandla esingabonakaliyo” esibashukumisela ekubeni bakhuphisane ngezoqoqosho njengoko besukela izilangazelelo zobuqu; wathi kodwa ezo zilangazelelo zobuqu zifanayo zinokulizisela iingenelo ibutho ngokubanzi.

USmith wakhuthaza ingcamango yelaissez-faire (isiFrentshi: “ukuvula zibhuqe”), ingcamango yokuba oorhulumente abafanele bangenele nje nanini na kwimicimbi yezoqoqosho yabantu ngabanye. Kucacile ukuba ngolo hlobo wayevakalisa ingcamango yesithethe yobukhapitali.

Ubukhapitali, inkqubo yezoqoqosho yanamhla neyona inempumelelo, ngokutsho kwabanye, ikhuthaza ukuba elowo umntu abe nento yakhe, norhwebo olukhululekileyo phakathi kwabantu ngabanye okanye iinkampani ezikhuphisanayo ukwenzela ingeniso. Imbali yezi mini yobukhapitali yaqalisa kwinkulungwane ye-16 kwiidolophu ezisembindini nakumntla weItali, kodwa iingcambu zayo zibuyela emva kakhulu. Unjingalwazi Kwizifundo Zembali uElias J. Bickerman odla umhlala-phantsi unikela ingcaciso yokuba “ukusetyenziswa kwegama lethu elithi ‘bukhapitali’ kwezoqoqosho, elivela kwelesiLatin elithi caput, elithetha ‘intloko,’ kubuyela emva kwigama elalisetyenziswa eBhabhiloni elalikwathetha ‘intloko’ nalalinentsingiselo efanayo kwezoqoqosho.”

Inkqubo yezorhwebo yazibalula ubunto bayo ekusukeleni izilangazelelo zobuqu okanye zelizwe. Ngokomzekelo, iye yayicinezela inyaniso. IThe Collins Atlas of World History ithi: “Umzobi weemaphu ubekwalilungu, yaye ngamathuba athile elawulwa ngolunya, kumacebo ezorhwebo. Imimandla efunyenweyo ityhile ubuncwane obukhulu bobutyebi. Ngaba umzobi weemaphu unokuvunyelwa ukuba ahlebele ihlabathi ngale nkcazelo? Ngaba akafanele ayifihle kwabo basenokuqalisa ukukhuphisana ngayo? . . . Ngenkulungwane yeshumi elinesixhenxe iDutch East India Company ayizange izipapashe iincwadi ezazinokunikela inkcazelo kumaqumrhu awayekhuphisana nayo.”

Inkqubo yezorhwebo yenze okubi ngakumbi kunoko. Ukususela ngenkulungwane ye-17 kuse kweye-19, yarhweba ngokuthengisa ngabantu abaNtsundu abathelekelelwa kwizigidi ezilishumi ukuze babe ngamakhoboka, yaye abaninzi babo bafela endleleni eyayisinge kumazwe aseMerika. Incwadi ethi Roots, nguAlex Haley, nenkcazelo yayo eyaboniswa kumabonwakude ngowe-1977, yazoba umfanekiso ocacileyo wale ntlekele ihambis’ umzimba.

Izitena Zokwakha​—⁠Zaziya Kusetyenziswa Njani?

Ukususela ekuqaleni kwembali yabantu, abantu abangafezekanga baye bafunda ngokwenza ulingelo neempazamo. Bengatyhilelwa nguThixo, kodwa ngokuzingisa ekwenzeni uphando okanye mhlawumbi ngamabona-ndenzile, bafumana iinyaniso ezisisiseko zenzululwazi, ezasetyenziswa kwiingcamango ezintsha zokuyila. Ngowe-1750, njengoko iBritani yayiqalisa ukuyiyeka inkqubo yezoqoqosho lwabalimi isiya kuleyo eyayilawulwa yimizi-mveliso nokusetyenziswa koomatshini, ezinye zezi zinto zaziyilwa​—⁠ngokungathi zizitena zokwakha⁠—​zazifumaneka ukuze zisetyenziswe ekwakheni ihlabathi elitsha.

Iphiko (windmill), elaqala ukusetyenziswa eIran naseAfghanistan ngenkulungwane yesithandathu okanye yesixhenxe yeXesha Eliqhelekileyo, lahlahl’ indlela yokufunyanwa nokuphuculwa kwezinye izinto ezingumthombo wamandla. Kodwa ngaba inkqubo yezorhwebo ebawayo yayiza kukuvuma ukuncama ingeniso enkulu ukuze iqinisekise ukuba le mithombo yayiya kukhuseleka, ingawungcolisi umoya yaye inokuthenjwa? Okanye ngaba yayiya kuzisebenzisa kakubi iingxaki ezibangelwa ngala mandla​—⁠mhlawumbi ide izibangele⁠—​ukuze nje ifumane inzuzo yobuqu?

Irhuluwa, eyaveliswa eTshayina ngenkulungwane yeshumi, yaba negalelo elikhulu kwezemigodi nakumsebenzi wokwakha. Kodwa ngaba inkqubo ebawayo yezorhwebo yayiza kuba nenkalipho yokukuphepha ukuyisebenzisa kakubi ekwenzeni izixhobo zokutyebisa abo barhweba ngezixhobo nto leyo ethetha ukulahlekelwa kwabantu bubomi?

Intsimbi ethambileyo (cast iron), mhlawumbi eyaqala ukufumaneka eTshayina ngenkulungwane yesithandathu yeXesha Eliqhelekileyo, yayisandulela intsimbi eqinileyo (steel) ekwakuza kwakhelwa phezu kwayo ihlabathi lanamhla. Kodwa ngaba inkqubo ebawayo yezorhwebo yayikulungele ukunciphisa ingeniso yayo ukuze ithintele ukungcoliswa komoya, iingozi nokuxinana okwakuza kuziswa sisizukulwana semizi-mveliso?

Oku kwakuza kubonakala ngokuhamba kwexesha. Enoba kuyintoni na, ezi nezinye izitena zokwakha zazimiselwe ukuba zibe negalelo ekuziseni iinguqulelo ehlabathini ezaziza kuthi, nazo, zikhokelele kwinto elalingazange liyibone ihlabathi ngaphambili. Funda kwinkupho yethu elandelayo: “Inguqulelo Yezorhwebo​—⁠Iye Yakhokelela Phi?”

[Umbhalo osemazantsi]

[Ibhokisi ekwiphepha 32]

Ishishini Lokulondoloza Imali

B.C.E.: Kwiitempile zamandulo zaseBhabhiloni nezaseGrisi kwakulondolozwa ngokukhuselekileyo imali eziingqekembe yabantu abayigcinisileyo; ekubeni abantu babengazifuni ngaxeshanye iimali zabo eziziingqekembe, ezinye zazo zazinokubolekwa abanye.

Kumaxesha Aphakathi: Inkqubo yezi mini yokulondoloza imali iyaqala, isungulwe ngabarhwebi baseItali ababesebenzisa abefundisi abahambahambayo njengabameli bokuhambisa iileta zamatyala kumazwe ngamazwe; eNgilani abo barhweba ngezinto zegolide baqalisa ukubolekisa baze bafune inzala ngemali egciniswe kubo ukuze ilondolozwe.

Ngowe-1408: Iziko abanye abalibiza ngokuba ngumanduleli weebhanki zanamhla lasekwa eGenoa, eItali, laza lalandelwa ngamanye afanayo eVenice (ngowe-1587) naseAmsterdam (ngowe-1609). Omnye umbhali-mbali uthi “uncedo olusemgangathweni olwalunikelwa yiBhanki YaseAmsterdam lwaba negalelo ekwenzeni iAmsterdam ibe liziko lokulondoloza imali ehlabathini.”

Ngowe-1661: IBhanki YaseStockholm, isebe leBhanki YaseAmsterdam, yaqalisa ukukhupha iziqwengana zasebhankini (ibhanki ithembisa ukuhlawula lowo uziphetheyo), uqheliselo amaNgesi awaluphuculayo kamva.

Ngowe-1670: ELondon, kwavulwa iziko lokuqala lokulondoloza imali elalisetyenziswa njengendawo amazwe awayehlawulana kuyo amatyala; kwangalo nyaka, kwaqala ukusetyenziswa kwetsheke, nto leyo yenza umxumi webhanki akwazi ukudlulisela iirisithi zogcino-mali kwezinye iibhanki okanye inxalenye yemali eseleyo kwabanye abantu.

Ngowe-1694: Ukusekwa kweBhanki YaseNgilani, eyaba yibhanki ebalaseleyo ngokukhupha iziqwengana zasebhankini (unozala wemali engamaphepha).

Ngowe-1944: Ukusekwa kweBhanki Yamazwe Ngamazwe Yokwakha Ngokutsha Nenkqubela, eyayikwabizwa ngokuba yiBhanki Yehlabathi, uthunywashe ochulwe ngokukhethekileyo nohlobene gqitha neZizwe Ezimanyeneyo nowasungulelwa ukunikela uncedo lwemali kumazwe angamalungu ukuze kuvuselelwe izakhiwo nezinto zenkqubela.

Ngowe-1946: Kwasekwa iNgxowa-mali Yezizwe Ngezizwe ukuze “kukhuthazwe ukusebenzisana ngezimali, ukulondoloza amandla emali, ukwandisa ezorhwebo; ukuhlangabezana neenzima zokuhlawula amatyala.”​—⁠IThe Concise Columbia Encyclopedia.

Ngowe-1989: ICebo LikaDelors licebisa ukuba aMazwe Amanyeneyo aseYurophu asebenzise imali efanayo aze aseke iBhanki Eyintloko YaseYurophu kule minyaka yee-1990.

Ngowe-1991: Ukuvulwa kweBhanki YaseYurophu Yokwakha Ngokutsha Neyenkqubela, iziko elasekwa ngowe-1990 ngamazwe angaphezu kwama-40 ukuze linikele uncedo lwezimali ekulungiseni iimeko ezinkenenkene zoqoqosho eMpuma Yurophu.