Lifutukuka ndi Kupeza Mphamvu

Gawo 2: Kukhupuka ndi Kugwa kwa Dongosolo Lamalonda

POYAMBIRIRA, dongosolo lamalonda linalephera kukula chifukwa cha kuvuta, kuchedwa, ndi kudula kwa njira zoyendera ndi zolankhulirana. Malonda apanyanja anali odya nthaŵi. Njira zapamtunda zinali zowopsa ndi zaupandu. Koma zonsezi zinali panjira yakusintha mwamsanga.

Malonda Akula Kukhala Amitundu Yonse

M’kati mwa nyengo ya Agiriki, kuchokera 338 B.C.E. mpaka 30 B.C.E., mizinda ya Mediterranean inakhala malo apakati amalonda. Mizindayi inaphatikizapo Alexandria, Igupto, womangidwa ndi Alexander Wamkulu mu 332 B.C.E. Koma “pofika m’zaka za zana lachiŵiri B.C.[E.], mizinda ya kum’maŵa yolamuliridwa ndi Girisi,” akutero profesa wa mbiri yakale Shepard B. Clough, “inayamba kusonyeza zizindikiro zakulephera m’zachuma; m’zaka za zana loyamba B.C.[E.], kugwako kunakhala kowonekeratu.” Roma anatenga malo a Girisi monga ulamuliro waukulu wadziko. Pambuyo pake, pansi paulamuliro wa Roma, Alexandria anakhala likulu ladera, lachiŵiri kwa Roma weniweniyo.

Ufumu unzake wa Byzantine wa Kum’maŵa umenenso unaloŵa m’malo Ufumu wa Roma Wakumadzulo, unafika pachimake pakati pa zaka za zana la 9 ndi zaka za zana la 11. Likulu lake, Constantinople (lerolino mzinda wotchedwa Istanbul), lokhala ndi anthu okwanira miliyoni imodzi, linali mzinda waukulu koposa padziko lonse. Msika wogulitsapo silika, zokoleretsa chakudya, utoto, ndi mafuta onunkhira zochokera Kum’maŵa ndiponso ubweya, zamkanda, matabwa, ndi zitsulo za Kumadzulo, unatumikira monga ulalo wolimba wodzerapo chuma cha ku Yuropu ndi Asia.

Koma mu 1204, mkati mwa Nkhondo Yamitanda yachinayi, ufumuwo unabwerera m’mbuyo. Likulu lake linalandidwa ndi kufunkhidwa, linakhala mkole waumbombo wandalama. Kodi zinachitika motani? Malinga nkunena kwa The Collins Atlas of World History, “Chikhumbo cha maiko Akumadzulo chokafunafuna chuma kumaiko Akum’maŵa chinayambitsa nkhondo zamitanda.” Izi zimasonyeza poyera kuti tchalitchi, ngakhale chikuwonekera kukhala chinasonkhezeredwa ndi changu chachipembedzo, chinalinso ndi zolinga zina.

Panthaŵiyi, mu Yuropu wanyengo zapakati, amalonda anali kuyambitsa zisonyezero zamalonda, kapena malo ogulitsirapo zinthu, kumene anasonyeza katundu wochokera kumaiko osiyanasiyana okhala m’njira zimene ankapitamo. Ponena za zisonyezero zopambana kwenikweni zochitikira m’chigawo cha Champagne kumpoto koma chakum’maŵa kwa Falansa, The New Encyclopædia Britannica imanena kuti: “Kugulitsana kwa amalonda pazisonyezero zawozo kaŵirikaŵiri kunachitidwa mwazikalata zolonjeza kulipira pachisonyezero chamtsogolo ndipo kokhoza kusamutsidwira kwa munthu wina. Kugulitsana koteroko kunali chiyambi cha kugwiritsira ntchito ngongole. Podzafika m’zaka za zana la 13 zisonyezerozo zinakhala malo apakati osungirako ndalama a Yuropu.”

Mkati mwa zaka za zana la 15, zigonjetso za anthu a mtundu wa Turk a ku Ottoman zinawopseza kutseka njira zamalonda pakati pa Yuropu ndi Asia. Chotero oyendera malo ochokera ku Yuropu anapita kukafunafuna njira zatsopano. Vasco da Gama, malinyero Wachipwitikizi, anatsogoza gulu lapaulendo kuchokera mu 1497 mpaka 1499 limene linakhoza kuzungulira ndi chombo chapamadzi kudzera ku Cape of Good Hope ku Afirika, mwakutero anakhazikitsa njira yatsopano yapanyanja yopita ku India imene inathandiza Portugal kukhala ulamuliro waukulu wadziko. Njira yatsopanoyo inalandanso Alexandria ndi madoko ena a Mediterranean kufunika kwawo monga malo apakati amalonda.

Panthaŵiyi, dziko logaŵana malire ndi Portugal, Spanya, linali kulipirira makonzedwe a malinyero Wachitaliyana Christopher Columbus okafika ku India mwakuzungulira dziko ndi chombo kudzera kumadzulo. Mu 1492—ndendende zaka 500 zapitazo kufika m’October chaka chino—Columbus anatulukira mwadzidzidzi Kuchigawo Chadziko Chakumadzulo. Angelezi, kumbali ina, mmalo mofuna kufika Kum’maŵa mwakudzera kummwera panyanja monga adachitira Vasco da Gama kapena kumadzulo monga Columbus, anapitirizabe kufunafuna njira yapamtunda yodzera kumpoto koma chakum’maŵa kapena kumpoto koma chakumadzulo. Kuyendera malo konseku kunafutukula malonda kukhala amitundu yonse. Ndipo pokhala mfundo imene inapezetsa Amereka, dongosolo lamalonda linasonyeza chisonkhezero chake champhamvu pa zochitika zapadziko.

Mphamvu za Chuma—Zomanga Maufumu

Dongosolo lamalonda lamanga magulu amphamvu. Chitsanzo chimodzi, malinga nkunena kwa bukhu lakuti By the Sweat of Thy Brow, “ndinjira zadziko lakale zoyendetsera kakhalidwe ka anthu ndi ndalama: chigwirizano cha akatswiri kapena gulu.” Monga magulu amphamvu ofananawo alerolino, zigwirizano zimenezi, pamodzi ndi maubwino okwaniritsidwa, nthaŵi zina anagwiritsira mphamvu zawo molakwa, anaterodi kwakuti womasulira Baibulo John Wycliffe akusimbidwa kukhala anatsutsa ena a iwo m’zaka za zana la 14 monga “achiwembu onyenga . . . otembereredwa ndi Mulungu ndi anthu.”—Onani bokoshi pansipa.

Dongosolo lamalonda lamangadi maufumu, Ufumu wa Briteni mosakaikira ndiwo unali wamphamvu koposa. Koma usanayambe kukhala wamphamvu m’zaka za zana la 16, ziungwe zamalonda zina mu Yuropu zinayamba kulimbanira mphamvu zachuma zimene zimatheketsa zinthu m’dziko. Chimodzi cha zimenezi chinali chotchedwa Hanseatic League.

Liwu lakale Lachijeremani lolemekezeka la Hanse, lotanthauza “asirikali,” mkupita kwanthaŵi linadzagwiritsiridwa ntchito pa lirilonse la zigwirizano kapena magulu a amalonda amene anabuka. Chakumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 12 ndi kuchiyambi kwa zaka za zana la 13, malo a Hanse mumzinda wa Lübeck wakumpoto kwa Jeremani anapambana malonda a ku Baltic ndipo anakhoza kugwirizanitsa Jeremani ndi Russia ndi maiko ena ogaŵana malire ndi Baltic. Panthaŵiyi, kumadzulo, Hanse mum’zinda wa Cologne mu Jeremani inkalimbitsa maunansi amalonda ndi Mangalande ndi Maiko Akugombe.

Magulu a amalonda ameneŵa anapereka malamulo odzitetezera iwo eni ndi katundu wawo wamalonda, kotero kuti ayendetse bwino malonda kaamba ka ubwino wawo onse. Iwo anagwirizananso m’kukhazikitsa njira zolepheretsa kuba ndi kufwamba zinthu pamtunda ndi panyanja pomwe. Pamene malonda anakula, kufunika kwa zigwirizano zokulirapo ndi magulu osiyanasiyana kunakhala kowonekeratu. Chotero pofika kumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 13, mizinda yaikulu yonse ya kumpoto kwa Jeremani inagwirizana kupanga chigwirizano chimodzi chimene chinatchedwa Hanseatic League.

Chifukwa cha malo ake, chigwirizanocho chinalamulira malonda aakulu akumpoto. Kumadzulo chinachita malonda ndi maiko otsungula a ku Mangalande ndi Maiko Akugombe, amene, nawonso, anachita malonda ndi maiko a ku Mediterranean ndi a Kum’maŵa. Kum’maŵa kwake chinachita malonda mosavuta ndi Scandinavia ndi Kum’maŵa kwa Yuropu. Pambali pochita malonda a ubweya ndi Flanders, chigwirizanocho chinatsogoleranso m’malonda a nsomba ndi Norway ndi Sweden limodzinso ndi malonda a zikopa zaubweya ndi Russia.

Komabe, ngakhale kuti sichinali chigwirizano chandale zadziko, ndipo chopanda bungwe lolamulira lachikhalire kapena nduna zachikhalire, pamene chinakhwima chinachita ulamuliro waukulu. Chimodzi cha zipambano zake zazikulu koposa chinali kukhazikitsa mphambo wa malamulo apanyanja ndi amalonda. Pamene chinkapanga malonda atsopano, chigwirizanocho chinali chofulumira kutetezera ake akale, chikugwiritsira ntchito mphamvu ngati kunali kofunika. Kaŵirikaŵiri, gulu lake lalikulu la ankhondo apanyanja amalonda linakhoza kulepheretsa zoyesayesa za olitsutsa mwakupereka ziletso m’zachuma kapena malamulo okhwima.

Hanseatic League inafika pachimake chapakati pa zaka za zana la 14. Kugwa kwake kunayamba m’zaka za zana la 15, pamene Angelezi ndi Adatchi anayamba kukhala amphamvu ndi kulamulira malonda apadziko. Nkhondo Yazaka Makumi Atatu inagwetsa Chigwirizanocho. Mamembala ake anakumana kwa nthaŵi yomalizira mu 1669. Kokha mizinda yochepa monga Lübeck, Hamburg, ndi Bremen, ndiyo inanyadirabe kukhala mizinda ya Hansa, komatu yokhala mizinda yotha mphamvu ya limene kale linali gulu lamphamvu lamalonda.

Magulu ena amalonda amphamvu koposa, ankayembekezera kutenga malo a Hanseatic League. Dziŵani za iwo mu Chigawo 3 chotsatirachi cha mpambo wathu uno chakuti: “Malonda Aumbombo Asonyeza Mkhalidwe Wake Weniweni.”

[Bokosi patsamba 26]

Mphamvu ya Zigwirizano ndi Zipani za Antchito

Pofika m’zaka za zana lachinayi B.C.E., mizinda ina ya ku Mediterranean inakhala ndi ukatswiri m’kupanga katundu wakutiwakuti, ndipo akatswiri okhala ndi umisiri wofanana anasonkhana m’malo m’malo m’mizinda imeneyi. Poyambirira, zigwirizano zaumisiri zimenezi zinali mwachiwonekere zamkhalidwe wachipembedzo ndi mwambo. By the Sweat of Thy Brow limatiuza kuti “gulu lirilonse linali ndi mkulu wawo wokhalanso mulungu kapena mulungu wamkazi, ndipo mamembala ake anachita mapemphero awo amwambo ndi achipembedzo.”

Zigwirizano za m’nyengo zapakati zinapangidwira kupereka chithandizo kwa mamembala ake ndi kutetezera ntchito yawo mwakuyendetsa bwino kagwiridwe kantchito ndi kuika miyezo, mwachiwonekere ndi kulamuliradi mitengo ndi malipiro. Ena anakhala ndi ulamuliro waukulu, akukhazikitsa mitengo mwakumvana kwamtseri, ndi cholinga chakutetezera malonda a chigwirizanocho ndi kuletsa mpikisano wosayenera.

Motsatira zigwirizano zaumisiri zakale, panabwera zigwirizano za amalonda m’zaka za zana la 11, zopangidwa ndi amalonda oyendayenda kuti apeze chitetezo ku maupandu apanjira zazikulu. Koma mkupita kwanthaŵi zigwirizanozo zinataikiridwa mkhalidwe wawo wapoyamba. Popeza kuti zinkachitira malonda m’malo awo mokha, mphamvu yawo ndi kutchuka zinatha pamene malonda ofika m’dera lonse, dziko lonse, ndi amitundu yonse anafalikira ndi pamene amalonda anayamba kupambana amisiri opanga zinthu.

Chakumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 18 ndi zaka za zana la 19, monga mphukira ya Kusintha kwa Maindasitale, zipani za antchito zinayambika m’Briteni ndi United States monga zigwirizano za antchito aukatswiri wofanana. Zinayamba monga makalabu azakakhalidwe ka anthu, ndipo zinakula kukhala zipani zotsutsa dongosolo la zakakhalidwe ka anthu ndi ndale zadziko. Lerolino, zipani zina za antchito zimamenyera kupezera mamembala ake malipiro abwino, maola, mikhalidwe yogwiriramo ntchito, ndi chisungiko cha pantchito, zikupeza zimenezi kaya mwa makambirano a onse kapena mwakubutsa masitalaka. Komabe, zina zimakhala zandale zadziko zowonekeratu.