Lifutukuka ndi Kupeza Mphamvu

Gawo 3: Malonda Aumbombo Asonyeza Mkhalidwe Wake Weniweni

KUCHIYAMBI kwa zaka za zana la 16, malonda a Yuropu analamuliridwa kumpoto ndi Hanseatic League, chigwirizano cha mizinda yamalonda ya Kumpoto kwa Jeremani; kumadzulo analamuliridwa ndi Mangalande ndi Netherlands; ndipo kum’mwera ndi Venice.

Kwazaka mazana ambiri, Venice anapambana m’malonda a zokoleretsa chakudya. Mapangano opangidwa ndi Aluya, ndipo pambuyo pake ndi Aturk a ku Ottoman, anatseka njira zamalonda Akum’maŵa kutsekereza opikisana nawo othekera. Ngati ena anafuna kupikisana ndi chipambano chimenechi, anayenera kupeza njira zatsopano zomkira ku Far East. Choncho anayamba kufunafuna njirazo. Chimodzi cha zotulukapo za kufunafuna kumeneku chinali kutulukira ndi kulanda nthaka za Amereka.

Mkati mwa ma 1490 papa anapereka chilolezo kwa Portugal ndi Spanya cha mkupiti wakulanda maiko osadziŵika apanthaŵiyo. Koma maiko amphamvu Achikatolika aŵiri ameneŵa anasonkhezeredwa ndi zolinga zinanso osati kokha zifuno zachipembedzo. Profesa Shepard Clough anathirira ndemanga motere: “Pamene anangovomerezedwa mwalamulo kudzitengera mbali zadziko zopezedwa chatsopanozo, ogwirira malowo anathamangira kukaphanga chuma chimene akapeza kumeneko.” Iye akuwonjezera kuti: “Oyambirira kufika kumaloko anali ndi chilakolako chosusukira kukhupuka. Kanalidi kachitidwe kochititsa chisoni kosonyeza poyera zolinga za kuyendera maloko ndi za nthanthi zofalikira kumaiko Akumadzulo.” Chilakolako chofuna golidi ndi anthu otembenuzidwira ku Chikristu chinaloŵetsa ogonjetsa Achispanyawo m’kufunkha Dziko Latsopanolo.

Panthaŵiyi, Netherlands ankakula kukhala wamphamvu m’malonda, kupita patsogolo kumene palibe maiko amphamvu m’malonda anakhoza kukudodometsa. Kwenikweni, mkati mwa zaka za zana la 17, kunali kowonekeratu kuti Mangalande ndilo dziko lokha lidali ndi mphamvu yokhoza kupikisana ndi Adatchi. Mpikisano m’zachuma unakula. M’zaka 30 zokha, podzafika mu 1618, Angelezi anaŵirikiza kaŵiri unyinji wa zombo zawo; podzafika pakati pa zaka za zana la 17, zombo zochitira malonda za Adatchi zinawonjezeredwa mokwanira kuŵirikiza kanayi chiŵerengero cha zombo zonse pamodzi za Italiya, Portugal, ndi Spanya.

Chotero, malo apakati amalonda a Ulaya anasamutsidwa kuchoka ku Mediterranean kumka ku gombe la Atlantic. Clough anatcha zimenezi kukhala “kusintha kwa zamalonda” ndi “kumodzi kwa kusintha malo kwakukulu m’mbiri,” natinso kunapanga “mkhalidwe wabwino wa zachuma umene unatheketsa utsogoleri wabwino wa maiko a Kumadzulo kwa Yuropu m’mwambo wa Kumadzulo.”

Maufumu Omangidwa pa Zabwino ndi Zoipa

Mu 1602 Adatchi anagwirizanitsa makampani angapo amalonda otsogozedwa ndi amalonda awo napanga Dutch East India Company. M’zaka makumi ambiri zotsatirapo, pambali pokhala ndi chipambano m’malonda mu Japani ndi Java, kampaniyi inathamangitsa Apwitikizi mu imene tsopano ikutchedwa West Malaysia, Sri Lanka, ndi mu Moluccas (Spice Islands). “Mofanana ndi Apwitikizi ndi Aspanya,” akutero Clough, “[Adatchi] anafuna kuti mapindu a malonda Akum’maŵa akhale awo okha.” Choncho nzosadabwitsa! Malonda anakhala apindu kwambiri kwakuti podzafika mu zaka za zana la 17, Netherlands inakhala ndi chuma cha boma pa nzika chochuluka koposa pamaiko Akumadzulo. Amsterdam anakhala malo apakati azachuma ndi malonda a maiko Akumadzulo.—Onani bokosi, patsamba 32.

Denmark ndi Falansa anapanga makampani ofananawo. Koma yoyamba, ndipo imene inadzakhala yamphamvu koposa, yopangidwa mu 1600, inali English East India Company. Inatenga malo a Afalansa ndi Apwitikizi mu India. Pambuyo pake Angelezi anakhalanso amphamvu m’malonda mu Tchaina.

Panthaŵiyi, ku Chigawo Chadziko Chakumadzulo, Dutch West India Company inkachita malonda a suga, fodya, ndi ubweya. Ndipo Angelezi, pambuyo polola mwalamulo Hudson’s Bay Company mu Canada mu 1670, anali otangwanidwa kuyesayesa kupeza njira yodzera kumpoto koma chakumadzulo ku Pacific pamene ankachita malonda ndi maiko oyandikana ndi Hudson Bay.

Mtola nkhani Peter Newman akunena kuti mpikisano wapakati pa Hudson’s Bay Company ndi North West Company monga mmodzi wa opikisana naye ake, “unali wa malonda a misika ndi ubweya, koma unatembenuka mwamsanga kukhala kulimbanira ulamuliro ndi maiko. . . . Mbali zonse ziŵirizo zinathetsa mikangano yawo ndi mwazi.” Amwenye ndiwo anakhala mikole yeniyeni amene makampani aŵiriwo anachita nawo malonda. “Moŵa wachizungu unakhala ndalama yogulira ubweya,” iye akutero, nawonjezera kuti “malonda a moŵa wachizungu ameneŵa anawonongetsa mabanja ndi mwambo Wachimwenye.”a

Chotero panakhala maufumu amphamvu ndi achisonkezero aŵiri, onse omangidwa pa zabwino ndi zoipa—ndi pamwazinso! Malonda aumbombo anali kusonyeza mkhalidwe wake weniweni. The Columbia History of the World imanena kuti: “Adatchi ndi Angelezi ankayenda panyanja zamchere za dziko monga atumiki ankhani zamalonda . . . Kwa makampani ameneŵa cholinga chachikulu chinali kupeza phindu.”—Kanyenye ngwathu.

Kupeza Phindu Mwakuswera Ena Masuku Pamutu

Kuyambira m’zaka za zana la 16 mpaka la 18, dongosolo lachuma lotchedwa mercantilism linasonkhezera mwamphamvu maiko a ku Yuropu. The New Encyclopædia Britannica ikulongosola kuti: “[Nthanthi ya mercantilism] inaumirira kuti kukhala ndi chuma, makamaka chuma mumpangidwe wa golidi, ndiko chinthu chachikulu m’lamulo la dziko. . . . Lamulo lamalonda la chiphunzitso cha mercantilism linali lokhweka motere: onjezerani kugulitsa zinthu kunja, chepetsani kugula zinthu kunja, ndipo landirani ndalama zonse zopezedwa pazinthu zogulitsidwa kunja mumpangidwe wa golidi.”

Kugwiritsira ntchito lamulo limeneli kaŵirikaŵiri kunapangitsa chisalungamo chachikulu. Maiko olamuliridwa anasweredwa masuku pamutu pamene matani agolidi anatengedwa kukalemeretsa maiko owalamulira. Mwachidule, mercantilism inavumbula mkhalidwe wodzigangira, wadyera umene dongosolo lamalonda laumbombo lalimbikitsa chiyambire kukhalapo kwake, mzimu umene ulipobe.

Analipo ena otsutsa mercantilism, mmodzi wa iwo anali mwamuna wa ku Scotland wotchedwa Adam Smith. Monga wanthanthi za kakhalidwe ka anthu ndi katswiri wa zachuma ndi ndale zadziko, Smith anafalitsa bukhu lophunzitsa zachuma mu 1776 la mutu wakuti An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Ngakhale kuti anatsutsa mercantilism, Smith sanalankhule motsutsa kulondola phindu laumwini. Mmalomwake, iye anagomeka kuti anthu amatsogoleredwa ndi “dzanja losaoneka” limene limawasonkhezera kuloŵa mpikisano wazachuma polondola phindu laumwini; koma phindu laumwini limenelo, iye ananenetsa tero, likhoza kupindulitsanso chitaganya chonse.

Smith anachirikiza nthanthi ya laissez-faire (Chifalansa: “kulola kuchita”), lingaliro lakuti maboma sayenera kuloŵerera kwambiri m’chuma cha munthu. Motero iye anasonyeza bwino lomwe nthanthi ya chikapitolizimu chenicheni.

Chikapitolizimu, dongosolo lonenedwa kukhala lamphamvu ndi lachipambano koposa lerolino, chimachirikiza chuma kukhala m’manja mwa anthu, malonda aufulu pakati pa anthu ndi makampani amene amapikisana mofuna phindu. Mbiri yamakono ya chikapitolizimu inayamba m’zaka za zana la 16 m’mizinda ya pakati ndi kumpoto kwa Italiya, koma magwero ake anayambira kumbuyo kuposa pamenepo. Professor Emeritus wa Mbiri wotchedwa Elias J. Bickerman akulongosola kuti “kugwiritsira kwathu liwu Lachingelezi la ‘capital,’ lochokera ku liwu Lachilatini la caput, lotanthauza ‘mutu,’ kunayambira kumbuyo ku liwu Lachibabulo lotanthauzanso ‘mutu’ ndipo linali ndi tanthauzo limodzimodzi lazachuma.”

Dongosolo lamalonda limavumbula mkhalidwe wake weniweni mwakulondola phindu laumwini la munthu kapena mtundu. Mwachitsanzo, ilo silinaleke kupondereza chowonadi. Bukhu lakuti The Collins Atlas of World History limati: “Wojambula mapu wakhalanso wotengamo mbali, ndiponso nthaŵi zina amakhala kapolo wa machenjera a dongosolo lamalonda. Zotumbidwa zimasonyeza kuti pali magwero ambirimbiri opezako chuma. Kodi wojambula mapu angaloledwe kuululira dziko chidziŵitso chimenechi? Kodi iye sayenera kuchibisa kuti othekera kupikisana nawo asadziŵe? . . . M’zaka za zana la khumi mphambu zisanu ndi ziŵiri, Dutch East India Company inakana kufalitsa zikalata zimene zikanapatsa chidziŵitso opikisana nayo.”

Dongosolo lamalonda lachita zoipa kuposa apa. Kuchokera m’zaka za zana la 17 mpaka la 19, linapanga malonda akugulitsa muukapolo anthu Achifirika oyerekezeredwa kufika ku mamiliyoni khumi, amene mazanamazana anafera m’njira popita ku Amereka. Bukhu lakuti Roots, lolembedwa ndi Alex Haley, ndi kusonyezedwa kwake pa wailesi yakanema mu 1977, kunapereka chithunzi chabwino cha machenjera oipa ameneŵa.

Milimo Yomangira—Kodi Ikagwiritsiridwa Ntchito Motani?

Kuchokera kuchiyambi cha mbiri ya anthu, anthu opanda ungwiro aphunzira zinthu mwakuyesa ndi kuphophonya. Iwo apeza zenizeni zazikulu zasayansi zimene zinagwiritsiridwa ntchito ndi zopangidwa zatsopano, osati mwavumbulutso laumulungu, koma mwakufufuza kosaleka kapena nthaŵi zina mwangozi. Mu 1750, pamene Great Britain inayamba kuleka kudalira chuma chaulimi ndi kusumika pachuma cha maindasitale ndi kugwiritsira ntchito makina, zina za zopangidwazo—zokhala monga milimo yomangira—zinalipo zokamangira dziko latsopano.

Makina otchedwa windmill, odziŵika kalekale ku Iran ndi Afghanistan m’zaka za zana la chisanu ndi chimodzi kapena ndi chiŵiri C.E., analambula njira yakutulukiridwa ndi kupangidwa kwa magwero ena a mphamvu. Koma kodi dongosolo lamalonda laumbombolo likalola kutaya ndalama zambiri kupangitsa magwero ameneŵa kukhala otetezereka, osaipitsidwa, ndi odalirika? Kapena kodi likadyerera pakusoŵeka kwa mphamvuyo—mothekera ngakhale kukuchititsa mwadala—kuti apezerepo phindu?

Wonga wa m’mfuti, woyamba kupangidwa mu Tchaina m’zaka za zana la khumi, unali wogwiritsira ntchito pamigodi ndi m’ntchito zakumanga. Koma kodi dongosolo lamalonda laumbombo likadziletsa kuugwiritsira ntchito kupangira zida kulemeretsa ogulitsa zida zowononga miyoyo ya anthu?

Chitsulo cha cast iron, mwinamwake chopezeka mu Tchaina kalekale m’zaka za zana la chisanu ndi chimodzi C.E., chinali kalambula bwalo wa chitsulo choyengedwa cha steel chimene chikagwiritsiridwa ntchito kumanga dziko lamakono. Koma kodi dongosolo lamalonda laumbombo likakhala lofunitsitsa kuchepetsa mapindu ake kaamba ka kuchinjiriza kuipitsa, ngozi, ndi kuchulukitsitsa kwa anthu zimene maindasitale akabweretsa?

Zikadziŵika mkupita kwanthaŵi. Mulimonse mmene zingakhalire, milimo imeneyi ndi ina inalinganizidwira kuthandiza kudzetsa masinthidwe a dziko amene, nawonso, akatsogolera ku chinachake chimene dziko silinachiwonepo ndi kalelonse. Taŵerengani m’kope lathu lotsatira nkhani yakuti: “Kusintha kwa Maindasitale—Kodi Kunatsogolera ku Chiyani?”

[Mawu a M’munsi]

[Bokosi patsamba 32]

Malonda Akuika Ndalama ku Banki

B.C.E.: Akachisi amakedzana Achibabulo ndi Achigiriki anasunga makobiri a oikiza kaamba ka chisungiko; popeza kuti onse sanatenge makobiri awo panthaŵi imodzi, ena a iwo ankabwerekedwa ndi ena.

Nyengo Zapakati: Kuyambika kwa kuika ndalama ku banki kwamakono, koyambidwa ndi amalonda Achitaliyana omwe anagwiritsira ntchito akalaliki oyendayenda monga atumiki opereka zikalata zangongole kuchokera kudziko lina kupita ku lina; ku Mangalande enizipala zagolidi anayamba kubwereketsa pachiwongola dzanja ndalama zosungitsidwa kwa iwo.

1408: Bungwe limene ena amalitcha kalambula bwalo wa mabanki amakono linakhazikitsidwa mu Genoa, Italiya, nilitsatiridwa ndi ofanana nalo mu Venice (1587) ndi Amsterdam (1609). Wolemba mbiri wina akunena kuti “mautumiki olongosoka operekedwa ndi Bank of Amsterdam anathandiza kupangitsa Amsterdam kukhala malo apakati achuma adziko lonse.”

1661: Bank of Stockholm, mphukira ya Bank of Amsterdam, linayamba kupereka ndalama zapepala (malonjezo a banki akulipira wokhala nazo), kachitidwe kamene Angelezi anakawongolera pambuyo pake.

1670: Nyumba yoyamba yolipiriramo maakaunti, imene inatsegulidwa mu London, inali nyumba yabanki yosamalira malipiro ndi maakaunti; kuyambika kwa cheke chamakono, ndiponso m’chaka chimenechi, kasitoma wa banki analoledwa kusamutsa malisiti a ndalama zoikidwazo ku banki lina kapena zolipirira ngongole kwa anthu ena.

1694: Kuyambika kwa Bank of England, banki lopambana m’kupereka ndalama zapepala (yopanga ndalama zapepala).

1944: Kupangidwa kwa International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, yotchedwanso World Bank, bungwe laukatswiri logwirizana kwambiri ndi Mitundu Yogwirizana ndipo yopangidwira kupereka chithandizo chandalama m’ntchito zakukonzanso ndi kumanga ku maiko okhala mamembala.

1946: International Monetary Fund yokhazikitsidwira “kuchirikiza chigwirizano chandalama, kusungitsa mphamvu yandalama, kukulitsa malonda; kulinganizitsa malipiro.”—The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia.

1989: Delors Plan imafuna kuti European Community ikhale ndi ndalama imodzi ndi kukhazikitsa European Central Bank mkati mwa ma 1990.

1991: Kutsegulidwa kwa European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, bungwe lopangidwa mu 1990 ndi maiko oposa 40 kupereka chithandizo chandalama kuti alimbitsenso chuma chimene chinachepa mphamvu cha Kum’maŵa kwa Yuropu.